SHORT  HISTORY 


OF* 


THE  EARLY  CHURCH 


JOHN  F.  HURST,  D.D. 


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1886 


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BR  165  .H75  T886 
Hurst,  J.  F.  1834-1903. 
Short  history  of  the  early 
church 


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SHORT  HISTORY  lAR  22  1918 

THE  EARLY  CHURCH 


JOHN  F.  HURST,  D.D. 

AUTHOR   OF   "short  HISTORY   OF  THE   REFORMATION"    ETC. 


WITU  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Emblem  of  the  Church — Dove  and  Sheaf.     From  n  Gem 


2^W  YORK 
CHAUTAUQUA   PRESS 

C.  L.  S.  C.  DEPARTMENT 

805  Broadway 

1886 


The  required  hooks  of  the  C.  L.  S.  C.  are  recommended  by  a  Council  of  six.  It 
must,  hoivever,  be  understood  that  recommendation  does  not  involve  an  approval  by 
the  Council,  or  by  any  member  of  it,  of  every  principle  or  doctrine  contained  in 
the  book  recommended. 


Copyright,  1886,  by  XIarphu  &  Brotheks. 


AH  lightt  re»(rvul 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  TAGB 

I.  The  Church  and  its  History 1 

II.  The  Scene  op  the  Xabors  of  the  Apostles  .  5 

III.  The  Greek  and  Roman  Conditions     ....  9 

IV.  The   Attitude    op   Judaism    towards   Chris- 

tianity      15 

V.  The  Period  op  Unitersal  Persecution.    .     .  19 

VI.  Christian  Worship 23 

VII.  The  Life  op  Christians 25 

VIII.  Ecclesiastical  Organization 27 

IX.  Ebionism  and  Gnosticism 29 

X.  The  Pagan  Literary  Attack 35 

XI.  The  Christian  Defenders 89 

XII.  The  Christian  Schools 43 

XIII.  Liberation  under  Constantine 40 

XIV.  Reaction  under  Julian 50 

XV.  The  Montanistic  Reform 54 

XVI.  Controversies  Concerneng  Christ 57 

XVII.  The  Later  Controversies 60 

XVIII.  Ecclesiastical  Schisms 67 

XIX.  The  Scriptures  and  Tradition 70 

XX.  Apocryphal  Writings 75 

XXI.  Theology  during  the  Early  Period.    ...  78 
XXII.  Ecclesiastical  Government  and  the  Roman 

Primacy 86 


VI  CONTENTS. 

en  A  ITER  PAGE 

XXIII.  Sacred  Seasons  and  Public  Worship  ...    93 

XXIV.  Ecclesiastical  Discipline 97 

XXV.  Christian  Life  and  Usages 100 

XXVI.  The  Church  in  the  Catacombs 106 

XXVII.  MONASTICISM 114 

XXVIII.  The  Age  op  Gregory  the  Great     .    .    .    .117 

XXIX.  The  Expansion  of  Christlvnity 119 

XXX.  The  Close  op  the  Early  Period.     .    .     .    .  125 

INDEX .129 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Constantinople Frontispiece. 

Gnostic  Symbols Page  34 

The  Labarum ,....,.,"     47 

St.  Sophia,  at  Constantinople  ...,..,,"     49 

Country  of  the  Nestorians To  face    **     62 

Roman  Catacombs "    109 


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SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  EARLY  CHURCH. 

^.r).    30-750. 


Chapter  I. 

THE  CHURCH  AND  ITS  HISTORY. 

1.  The  History  of  the  Church.  The  visible  Church  con- 
sists of  the  organized  believers  in  Christ  and  the  follow- 
ers of  his  life.  General  history  reveals  the  constant  pres- 
ence of  a  superintending  Providence.  The  rise  and  fall 
of  nations  is  not  an  idle  play  of  human  passions.  Schil- 
ler's aphorism  is  a  just  recognition  of  God's  constant 
watchfulness  and  justice:  "The  world's  history  is  the 
world's  judgment."  The  wild  currents  have  never 
been  permitted  to  flow  on  without  divine  control. 
When  the  hour  came  for  the  wrong  to  cease,  the  con- 
trolling hand  intervened.  The  result  was  always  the 
triumph  of  the  right.  In  the  history  of  the  Church 
the  divine  superintendence  has  been  far  more  promi- 
nent. While,  in  secular  history,  the  spiritual  forces  lay 
largely  in  the  background,  in  the  life  o^  the  Church 
they  have  come  out  boldly  into  the  clear  foreground. 
Though  often  in  the  wrong, and  divided  in  opinions,  the_ 
Church  has  been  saved  from  fatal  error  and  downfall 
by  divine  interposition.  Even  when  it  has  been  grossly 
superstitious,  and  the  teacher  of  false  doctrine,  God  has 
always  raised  up  true  servants,  who  became  the  heroes 

1 


2  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

of  a  holy  cause  and  the  heralds  of  a  brighter  day. 
The  champion  of  a  wrong  cause  has  always  had  his 
plans  fail  through  the  work  of  some  brave  and  pure 
oj^ponent.  There  has  been  an  Athanasius  to  meet  every 
Arius.  To  counteract  a  Leo  X.,  there  has  always  arisen 
a  fearless  Luther.  To  show  when  the  divine  force  has 
controlled  all  human  events,  and  made  them  subserve 
the  steady  progress  of  God's  servants,  is  the  mission  of 
the  historian  of  the  Church.  His  task  is  not  to  untie 
a  tangled  skein,  but  to  follow  the  golden  thread  of  the 
divine  presence  in  all  the  Christian  ages. 

2.  The  Completion  of  Christ's  Personal  Ministry. 
When  our  Lord's  j^assion  had  occurred,  three  important 
works  were  accomplished.  He  had  communicated  his 
gospel  to  men,  he  had  set  a  spotless  example  before  the 
world,  and  he  had  achieved  universal  redemption  by  his 
voluntary  death.  His  subsequent  resurrection  and  as- 
cension were  the  visible  proofs  of  the  truth  of  his  doc- 
trines. They  were  more  than  this — they  were  the  two- 
fold assurance  to  his  followers,  then  and  in  all  later  ages, 
that  they  who  believe  in  him,  and  love  him,  shall  enjoy 
his  constant  presence  during  life,  and  afterwards  enter 
upon  the  inheritance  of  heaven.  Christ,  immediately 
before  his  ascension,  commanded  his  disciples  to  re- 
main in  Jerusalem  until  they  should  be  endued  with 
power  from  on  high.  Here  lay  his  promise  of  spiritual 
preparation  for  their  ministry.  It  was,  at  the  same 
time,  a  direct  lesson  that  a  special  spiritual  preparation 
and  plenitude  were,  for  all  time,  a  requisite  for  the  suc- 
cessful preaching  of  the  gospel.  Without  the  descent 
of  the  Spirit  at  Pentecost  tliere  would  have  been  no  im- 
pulsive power  in  C'hristianity. 

3.  The  Preaching  at  Pentecost.  The  Pentecost  was 
the  Jewish   national    thanksgiving  day.     It  was  the 


THE    CHURCH    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  3 

feast  of  weeks,  or  harvest  feast-day,  which  commem- 
orated the  gift  of  the  Law  to  Moses,  and  at  the  same 
time  gave  occasion  to  return  thanks  for  the  annual 
products  of  tlie  soil.  Its  observance  was  associated 
with  the  most  touching  memories  connected  with  the 
founding  of  the  theocracy,  and  with  the  subsequent  pre- 
serving care  of  a  bountiful  Creator.  Jews  in  all  lands 
united  wdth  their  brethren  in  Palestine  in  an  annual 
visit  to  Jerusalem,  to  celebrate  the  day.  The  first 
Christian  Pentecost  came  on  the  fiftieth  day  after  our 
Lord's  resurrection  and  the  tenth  after  his  ascension. 
There  were  Jews  in  the  sacred  city  from  all  parts  of 
the  known  world.  On  that  day  the  promise  of  the 
Spirit's  descent  was  fulfilled.  Cloven  tongues  of  fire 
flamed  above  the  heads  of  the  disciples.  The  miracu- 
lous gift  of  utterance  was  imparted.  The  multitude  of 
Jews  was  attracted  to  the  place  w^here  the  disciples 
were.  Each  worshipper,  whatever  his  language,  un- 
derstood the  preaching.  Peter  explained  to  the  people 
the  significance  of  the  scene,  and  applied  the  descent 
of  the  Spirit  to  the  work  of  our  Lord.  The  result 
was  the  addition  of  three  thousand  to  the  body  of  be- 
lievers. 

4.  The  Organization  of  the  Church  was  the  direct  re- 
sult of  the  remarkable  scenes  at  Pentecost.  Measures 
were  soon  taken  for  a  unifying  ecclesiastical  polity. 
Even  before  Pentecost  a  new  apostle,  Matthias,  was 
chosen  in  place  of  the  fallen  Judas.  Orders  of  minis- 
ters and  lay  members  were  established,  for  the  preach- 
ing of  the  gospel,  the  care  of  the  needy,  and  the  building 
up  of  the  body  of  believers.  Only  a  general  organi- 
zation, however,  was  effected.  The  most  simple  ar- 
rangements were  made  for  government,  as  the  believers 
were  as  yet  but  few,  and  confined  to  a  narrow  area. 


4  SHOET   HISTORY    OF   THE   EARLY   CHURCH. 

The  more  elaborate  polity  was  left  for  the  future  needs 
of  the  Church,  to  take  its  shape  according  to  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  societies  and  their  individual  require- 
ments. 

5.  The  Practical  Life  of  the  Christians  was  at  once 
simple  and  beautiful.  It  vvas  a  type  of  all  the  essential 
qualities  which  Christ  had  taught,  as  requisite  for 
pure  living  and  final  salvation.  There  were  both  a 
simplicity  of  faith  and  that  intense  brotherly  love 
which  had  their  practical  demonstration  in  the  equal  dis- 
tribution of  temporal  possessions.  The  community  of 
goods  did  not  arise  from  a  divine  command,  but  was 
merely  the  natural  effect  of  that  broad  charity  which 
arose  from  the  love  of  Christ  and  the  possession  of  the 
Spirit.  Its  real  majesty  lay  in  its  spontaneous  quality. 
All  thoughts  centred  in  the  memory  of  Christ  as  a  per- 
sonal Saviour,  and  in  the  consciousness  of  his  continued 
presence.  To  crown  all,  there  was  a  fervor  in  communi- 
cating the  gospel  which  knew  no  bounds.  The  whole 
world  seemed  small.  Its  farthest  horizon  alone  was  to 
be  the  limit  of  teaching.  What  the  apostles  had  felt  and 
knowm  w^as  now  their  sole  passion.  There  was  little 
difference  between  the  apostle  and  the  unlettered  be- 
liever. Each,  in  his  own  best  way,  was  to  preach 
the  new  life  in  Christ,  that  all  men  might  share  its 
sacrifice  here  and  its  holy  joy  hereafter.  Pentecost 
was  the  practical  divine  testimony  to  the  universal 
adoption  of  the  gospel.  The  removal  of  the  natural 
limitations  of  language  was  a  divine  indication  of  the 
application  of  Christianity  to  every  class  and  condition. 
It  was  the  divine  endorsement  of  tlie  command  to  the 
disciples  to  preach  and  teach  the  Word  throughout  the 
world. 


Chapter  II. 
the  scene  op  the  labors  of  the  apostles. 

1.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  the  chief  source  of  in- 
formation concerning  the  fields  of  work  of  the  different 
apostles.  But  the  epistles  of  Paul  and  his  associates 
contain  frequent  statements  which  serve  to  supply 
missing  links  in  that  more  formal  history.  To  these 
may  be  added  the  supplementary  accounts  of  writers 
from  the  second  century  to  the  fourth;  many  of  which, 
however,  are  only  vague  suppositions,  or  impressions, 
which  existed  in  oral  form  in  the  early  Church. 

2.  Peter  represented  the  Jewish  type  of  Christianity. 
He  was  slow  to  learn  that  Christianity  was  designed 
for  all  men.  Pentecost  should  have  been  enough,  but 
even  this  great  lesson  did.  not  satisfy  his  intensely 
Jewish  character.  After  important  labors  in  Palestine, 
extending  as  far  north  as  Antioch,  he  came  to  the  coun- 
cil in  Jerusalem,  and  united  with  Paul  in  removing  all 
Jewish  ceremonials  as  a  condition  of  entrance  into  the 
Church.  Here,  at  the  moment  of  supreme  test,  he  wise- 
ly changed  his  position.  Henceforth  all  bonds  with 
Judaism  were  broken,  and  Jews  and  Gentiles  became 
Christians  on  precisely  the  same  terms.  There  are 
good  reasons  to  suppose  that  Peter  made  an  evangel- 
istic tour  through  portions  of  Asia  Minor,  for  his  first 
epistle  intimates  previous  labors  in  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cap- 
padocia,  Asia  (the  province),  and  Bithynia.  He  also 
8ays  that  at  the  time  of  writing  he  was  in  Babylon.    If 


6  SHORT   HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

this  was  the  Babylon  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  he 
was,  no  doubt,  attracted  thither  by  reason  of  the  large 
Jewish  population  resident  there.  It  seems  to  have 
been  understood  by  him  and  Paul  that  he  should  con- 
fine his  labors  to  the  east,  while  Paul  should  occupy 
himself  with  the  west. 

3.  Peter  in  Rome.  There  is  no  historical  proof  that 
Peter  founded  the  Church  in  Rome,  or  that  he  was 
ever  there.  His  residence  there  is  not  mentioned  by  the 
earliest  writers  in  their  lists  of  the  first  bishops  of  the 
western  metropolis.  The  first  mention  was  by  Diony- 
sius  of  Corinth,  a.d.  170,  who  speaks  of  Peter's  death 
in  Rome.  But  while  we  are  without  definite  proof  of 
Peter's  presence  in  Rome,  it  is  not  impossible  that  he 
did  spend  a  brief  period  there,  and  that  he  died  about 
the  year  67,  in  the  persecution  under  Nero. 

4.  Paul  towers  far  above  all  the  apostles  in  the  maj- 
esty of  his  character,  the  scope  of  his  genius,  the  depth 
of  his  learning,  and  the  sublime  quality  of  his  labors. 
Educated  in  both  Jewish  and  pagan  learning,  after  his 
miraculous  conversion  he  became  an  apostle,  in  every 
sense  able  to  cope  with  the  antagonism  of  the  com- 
bined foes  of  his  age.  His  call  was  to  the  Gentiles. 
He  made  three  great  missionary  tours.  The  first  was 
begun  A.D.  44,  and  embraced  Cyprus,  and  then  Asia 
Minor,  where  he  visited  Perga,  Pisidia,  Antioch,  Ico- 
nium,  Lystra,  and  Derbe.  His  second  began  a.d.  48. 
He  went  northward  through  Syria  into  Asia  Minor, 
and  visited  Cilicia,  Phrygia,  Galatia.  He  then  crossed 
the  JEfi-can  Sea  to  Macedonia.  He  beican  his  Eu- 
ropean  ministry  in  Philippi,  and  went  thence  south- 
ward into  Greece  as  far  as  Corinth.  From  thence 
he  went  to  Ephesus,  and  returned  to  Jerusalem.  He 
entered  upon  his  third  tour  a.d.  52.     He  went  again 


THE    SCENE    OF   THE    LABOES    OF   THE    APOSTLES.        7 

into  Asia  Minor,  taking  Galatia,  Pbrygia,  and  Troas  on 
the  way.  He  then  crossed  into  Macedonia  and  Illyri- 
cum.  He  returned  to  Troas,  and,  passing  by  the  zEgean 
iskmds,  proceeded  back  to  Jerusalem.  Here  he  was  ar- 
rested, and  taken  a  prisoner  to  Ccnesarea,  where  he  was 
two  years  in  confinement.  He  appealed  for  justice  to 
Cnssar,  and  was  taken  to  Rome.  He  remained  there  from 
A.D.  59  to  61.  He  Avas  now  released,  and,  as  we  believe, 
entered  on  a  fourth  tour,  embracing  a  visit  to  Crete, 
Macedonia,  Corinth,  Nicopolis,  Dalmatia,  and  Asia 
Minor.  He  was  a  second  time  arrested,  and  taken 
to  Rome.  He  suffered  martyrdom  in  Nero's  reign, 
A.D.  66. 

5.  John  represented  the  mediating  element  between 
Judaism  and  paganism.  His  attachment  and  scene  of 
labor  seem  to  have  been,  for  the  first  twenty  years  after 
Pentecost,  chiefly  in  Palestine.  He  was  present  at  the 
council  in  Jerusalem,  a.d.  50.  For  twenty  years,  or 
until  A.D.  70,  we  lose  sight  of  him  entirely.  The  prob- 
ability is,  that  he  labored  in  the  valley  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates,  with  Babylon  as  the  centre,  and  re- 
turned to  Jerusalem,  whence  he  fled  to  Ephesus  on  the 
capture  of  that  city  by  Titus.  We  find  him  now  in 
Ephesus.  His  residence  was  intermitted  by  his  exile 
to  the  island  of  Patmos.  He  died  in  Ephesus  about 
A.D.  98,  when  about  one  hundred  years  old. 

6.  The  Labors  of  the  other  Apostles  are  largely  matter 
of  conjecture,  derived  from  the  writings  of  Hegesippus, 
Eusebius,  and  Nioephorus,  who  framed  their  supposi- 
tions from  the  floating  oral  traditions  in  the  Christian 
communities.  James  the  Elder  suffered  martyrdom  in 
Jerusalem,  about  a.d.  44.  James,  our  Lord's  brother, 
preached  in  Jerusalem,  and  finally  died  there  a  martyr. 
It  was  believed  that  Philip  labored  in  Phrygia;  Simon 


8  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

Zelotes,  in  Egypt  and  the  neighboring  African  coast; 
Thomas,  in  India;  Andrew,  in  Scythia,  Asia  Minor, 
Thrace,  and  Greece;  Matthias,  in  Ethiopia;  Judas, 
called  Lebbseus  or  Thaddeiis,  in  Persia;  and  Bartholo- 
mew, in  Lycaonia,  Armenia,  and  India. 

7.  The  uncertainty  as  to  fields  of  labor  of  most  of  the 
apostles  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  Scriptures.  One 
fact  is  clear,  however,  that  the  trend  of  the  world's 
Christian  life  was  westward.  On  the  distribution  of 
the  gospel  into  the  more  stable  parts  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire we  have  full  light  in  the  labors  of  Paul.  All  the 
just  and  vital  interests  of  Christianity  centred  in  that 
one  man's  work.  Rome  was  to  be  the  point  of  depart- 
ure for  the  sowing  of  the  truth  in  the  north  and  farther 
west.  Here  Paul  brought  his  life  and  labors  to  a 
triumphant  close.  But  with  his  martyrdom  he  had 
only  begun  his  work.  His  example  and  writings — and 
the  two  are  inseparable — have  been,  ever  since,  the  per- 
manent and  necessary  treasures  of  the  Church.  The 
present  current  of  the  truth  is  a  reversal  of  the  old 
order.  It  is  from  the  fields  then  barbarous,  and  large- 
ly unknown  to  the  geography  of  those  times,  towards 
the  old  East.  What  the  apostles  could  only  begin 
will  bo  completed,  in  the  eastern  countries,  by  the 
laborers  sent  out  from  the  warm  heart  of  western 
Protestantism. 


Chapter  III. 

THE  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  CONDITIONS. 

1.  The  Two  Forces.  The  pagan  literature,  in  the  earliest 
period  of  Christianity,  was  a  beautiful  piece  of  human 
workmanship.  No  temple  in  stone  was  so  symmetri- 
cal and  elaborate  as  that  of  Greek  and  Roman  letters. 
From  rude  beginnings,  it  had  grown  into  such  ma- 
jestic and  firm  proportions  that,  to  this  day,  it  chal- 
lenges the  admiration  of  the  world.  The  classic 
achievements  in  the  whole  field  of  literature,  art,  phi- 
losophy, and  legislation  are  the  common  inheritance  of 
man.  When  Christianity  came  forward  with  its  strange 
claims  upon  the  confidence  of  men,  there  was  but  little 
in  its  exterior  which  could  awaken  sympathy.  The 
most  despised  land  had  produced  it.  Its  founder  had 
suffered  death  on  the  ignominious  cross.  Its  first  apos- 
tles were  of  humble  origin,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
Paul,  not  one  had  drunk  at  the  classic  fountains.  That 
a  new  faith,  witli  such  multiform  disadvantages,  should 
venture  upon  such  a  hostile  field,  where  the  literature 
and  traditions  of  many  centuries  held  firm  ground, 
seemed  a  hopeless  task.  But  the  heroism  of  the  first 
preachers  of  Christianity  was  not  disturbed  by  the  num- 
ber or  strength  of  the  enemy.  The  promise  of  success 
was  the  basis  of  their  faith.  They  wrought  on,  and 
expected  triumph  over  every  foe.  Which  should  win 
— the  obscure  Christian,  who  had  never  fought  a  battle, 
or  the  cultivated  pagan,  who  had  never  lost  one  ? 


10  SHORT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

2.  The  Greeks.  The  path  of  the  Greek  to  mastery 
had  heen  through  all  fields  of  intellectual  development. 
Out  of  the  old  Pelasgic  cradle  he  had  grown  to  the 
full  grandeur  of  Attic  manhood.  The  blood  of  many- 
tribes  flowed  through  his  veins,  and  he  had  absorbed 
the  strongest  and  best  elements  of  all.  In  epic  and 
dramatic  poetry  he  produced  Homer,  Hesiod,  ^schy- 
lus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides.  The  Greek  was  a  lover 
of  form  and  color.  He  caught  his  inspiration  from  the 
wild  and  beautiful  scenery  of  his  islands  and  broken 
coast.  Apelles  and  Phidias  became  the  incarnation  of 
his  passion.  In  his  long  battle  for  federation  he  had 
produced  such  great  law-givers  as  Solon  and  Lycurgus. 
He  was  of  fervent  temperament,  and,  living  always  in 
a  feverish  political  atmosphere,  he  had  developed  De- 
mosthenes, ^schines,  and  Isocrates — orators  who  have 
swayed  audiences  in  all  later  ages. 

3.  The  Philosophical  Systems.  In  philosophy,  the 
Greeks  labored  with  great  industry.  The  growth  of 
their  systems  was  contemporaneous  with  their  national 
prosperity.  The  dealing  with  the  fundamental  ques- 
tions of  human  being  and  destiny  by  Socrates  and 
Plato  reveals  a  deep  moral  purpose.  There  are  two 
great  periods  of  Greek  philosophy,  separated  by  the 
downfall  of  Alexander's  empire.  The  former  extends 
from  B.C.  600  to  B.C.  324.  Within  this  short  space  arose 
all  the  best  thinkers,  who  founded  the  Ionic,  the  early 
Pythagorean,  the  Eleatic,  the  Atomistic,  and  the  So- 
phist Schools.  The  culmination  was  reached  in  the 
three  systems  of  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle.  The 
second  period  extends  from  b.c.  324  to  a.d.  530.  The 
schools  of  the  decadence  rose  and  fell  at  this  time — 
the  Stoics,  the  Epicureans,  and  the  Sceptics.  To  this 
was  added  Neo-Platonism,  founded  by  Plotinus.    The 


THE    GREEK    AND    EOMAN    CONDITIONS.  11 

most  spiritual  of  the  entire  circle  of  Greek  philosophers 
was  Plato.  In  many  departments  of  his  philosophy, 
such  as  the  unity  and  spirituality  of  God  and  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  he  made,  though  unconsciously, 
very  near  approaches  to  the  truths  of  revelation.  It 
was  the  habit  of  early  Christian  teachers  to  regard 
his  system  as  kindred  to  Christianity.  Eusebius  said  : 
"  Plato  alone,  of  all  the  Greeks,  reached  the  vestibule 
of  truth,  and  stood  upon  its  threshold."  Justin  Martyr, 
Clemens  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  and  Augustine,  in  the 
early  period,  and  Schleiermacher  and  Neander  in  the 
recent  period,  were  led  to  Christ  through  Plato  as  their 
guide. 

4.  The  Decay  of  the  Greek  Philosophy.  The  best  sys- 
tems in  the  group  declined  with  the  political  suprem- 
acy of  the  Greek  confederation.  Those  which  suc- 
ceeded the  loss  of  national  independence  were  the 
systems  of  despair.  When  Christianity  arose,  the 
prevailing  Greek  philosophy  was  sceptical.  The 
mythology  had  lost  its  firm  hold,  while  philosophy, 
which  was  the  substitute  oifered  by  the  profoundest 
thinkers,  proved  its  own  inability  to  satisfy  the  crav- 
ings of  the  soul  for  salvation,  and  the  solution  of  its 
great  problems.  Both  pagan  faith  and  thought  were 
unavailing  to  meet  the  spiritual  v/ants  of  man.  The 
soul  could  not  live  on  the  triumphs  of  art,  or  literature, 
or  eloquence,  or  legislation.  Christianity  came  forward 
with  its  sublime  truths,  and  made  proffer  of  them  to 
the  world.  Paul,  preaching  Christ  on  Mars  Hill,  looked 
back  upon  a  long  pathway  of  dead  systems  of  Greek 
genius,  and  forward  upon  the  rise  of  Christian  creations 
in  their  place.  Great  as  had  been  the  thinkers  of  the 
Stoa  and  the  Academy,  greater  still  was  the  messenger 
of  Christ.     His  system  was  the  permanent  truth. 


12  SHOET    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

5.  The  Roman  Empire.  When  Christianity  began  its 
career  for  the  world's  possession,  the  Roman  rule  was 
universal.  The  literature  and  religion  were  shaped 
from  Greek  models.  But  the  Romans  gave  to  every- 
thing a  practical  direction.  Law  was  their  habit,  and 
to  govern  was  their  passion.  They  had  no  sooner  con- 
quered a  rude  tribe  than  they  converted  the  terri- 
tory into  a  new  province,  and  gave  it  all  the  qualities 
of  a  firm  part  of  the  empire.  Palestine  was  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  great  domain,  governed  by  Roman 
deputies,  who  were  closely  watched  at  the  same  time 
that  they  were  intrusted  with  large  authority.  Paul, 
the  Greek  preacher,  enjoyed  and  asserted  the  rights 
of  Roman  citizenship.  Great  highways,  built  at  great 
expense  for  the  rapid  movement  of  armies,  connected 
all  parts  of  the  broad  territory.  These  made  easy  the 
rapid  dissemination  of  the  gospel.  The  apostles  could 
move  along  these  stone  roads  with  ease,  and  so  convert 
paths  for  soldiers  into  highways  for  the  triumphant 
march  of  the  messengers  of  the  peaceful  gospel. 

6.  Obstacles.  The  difficulties  confronting  the  Church 
throughout  the  Roman  Empire  were,  however,  of  formi- 
dable character.  The  entire  body  of  the  people  was  hos- 
tile  to  any  spiritual  religion.  What  did  not  appeal  to 
the  senses  had  no  attraction  to  them  as  an  object  of 
worship.  The  hold  of  the  old  mythology  was  lost,  and 
a  general  scepticism  as  to  all  beliefs  prevailed.  But  the 
emperors  regarded  the  preservation  of  the  ancestral 
faith  as  the  great  bulwark  of  the  throne.  Political 
government  and  fidelity  to  the  prevailing  mythology 
were  held  to  be  inseparable.  Hence,  Christianity  was 
bitterly  opposed,  so  soon  as  its  antagonism  was  discov- 
ered. It  was  seen  to  be  hostile  to  the  elaborate  temple 
service.     The  emperor,  who  was  also  Pontifex  Maxi- 


THE    GEEEK   AND    ROMAN    CONDITIONS.  13 

mils,  or  supreme  priest,  was  held  responsible  for  the 
support  of  the  state  religion.  The  temples  and  pagan 
rites  must  be  sustained.  The  more  closely  Christianity 
came  into  view,  the  more  stringent  became  the  meas- 
ures for  its  suppression.  The  Christians  made  no  con- 
cealments. They  absented  themselves  from  the  tem- 
ples, threw  off  all  faith  in  the  ruling  mythology,  and 
openly  declared  their  hostility  to  it. 

7.  Moral  Destitution  of  Paganism.  When  Christianity 
appeared  the  moral  depravity  of  the  Roman  Empire 
was  at  its  lowest  ebb.  The  stricter  morals  of  the  re- 
public had  disappeared  in  the  wild  licentiousness  of  the 
empire.  It  was  an  age  of  excesses,  which  the  satirists, 
with  Juvenal  and  Persius  at  their  head,  held  up  to  uni- 
versal contempt. 

(«)  The  degradation  of  women  was  complete.  Even 
in  Athens  the  wife  was  a  slave,  and  possessed  no  legal 
rights.  She  could  bequeath  only  a  measure  of  barley 
to  her  offspring.  Her  present  depression  in  Turkey  is 
a  fair  picture  of  the  old  pagan  conditions.  Her  mental 
endowments  were  declared  to  be  of  inferior  grade. 
She  was  supposed  to  excel  in  duplicity  and  treachery. 
Marriage  was  a  loose  bond,  with  only  the  shadow  of 
political  institution. 

(b)  A  low  estimate  was  placed  on  childhood.  In 
Sparta  the  maimed  children  were  a  burden  to  the  state, 
because  useless  as  soldiers.  Only  boys  had  an  impor- 
tance in  the  eye  of  parents.  Stealing  was  a  virtue  in 
a  boy,  provided  he  could  do  it  so  cleverly  as  not  to  be 
detected.  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle  never  went  so 
far  as  to  enforce  the  element  of  religion  in  education. 
Children  were  not  taught  reverence  for  their  parents. 
Jupiter,  the  son  of  Saturn,  hurled  his  father  from  the 
throne,  shut  him  up  in  Tartarus,  and  j^arcelled  out  the 


14  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

universe  between  himself  and  his  two  brothers,  Nep- 
tune and  Pluto.  With  this  picture  of  filial  brutality 
as  the  basis  of  the  pagan  mythology,  what  better  esti- 
mate could  be  expected  of  childhood  ?  All  the  types  of 
parental  love  were  based  on  admiration  of  heroic  deeds. 
When  Xenophon  was  told  that  his  son  had  died  in  bat- 
tle, he  replied  :  "  I  did  not  request  the  gods  to  make  my 
son  immortal  or  long-lived,  for  it  is  not  clear  that  this 
was  suitable  for  him  ;  but  that  he  might  have  integrity 
in  his  principles,  and  be  a  lover  of  his  country,  and  now 
I  have  my  desire."  Children,  according  to  the  pagan 
thought,  were  only  machines  for  fighting  future  battles. 
Christ  achieved  no  greater  revolution  than  Avhen  he 
elevated  childhood  into  equality  with  manhood.  His 
one  declaration  :  "Of  such  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven," 
was  a  fatal  blow  at  the  world's  prevailing  estimate  of 
children. 

(c)  Slavery  was  universal.  It  underlay  the  whole 
political  and  social  structure.  In  Attica,  as  early  as 
B.C.  309,  according  to  Demetrius  Phalereus,  there  were 
twenty  thousand  citizens  and  four  hundred  thousand 
slaves.  Among  the  Romans  the  slaves  were  not  regard- 
ed as  persons  (2)erso7ice) ,  but  as  things  (res).  The  doors 
of  the  wealthy  Romans  were  guarded  by  ostlariiy  or 
slaves,  in  chains,  who  lay  like  dogs  before  their  kennels. 
When  a  gentleman  was  murdered,  and  his  assassin  could 
not  be  found,  the  crime  was  supposed  to  have  been  com- 
mitted by  a  slave,  and  all  the  slaves,  with  their  wives 
and  children,  were  put  to  death,  to  make  sure  of  the 
offender.  Tacitus  says  that,  wdien  Pedanius  Secundus 
was  murdered,  as  many  as  four  hundred  innocent  slaves 
were  put  to  death.  Slavery  extended  to  all  parts  of 
the  empire,  and  the  number  in  Rome  was  constantly 
kept  \\\)  by  the  inflow  of  captives  in  the  wars. 


Chapter  IV. 

THE  ATTITUDE    OF    JUDAISM  TOWARDS    CHRISTIANITY. 

1.  The  Jewish  Antecedents.  The  Jev/s  regarded 
themselves  as  the  world's  teachers  and  law-givers.  They 
alone,  of  all  peoples,  believed  in  the  unity  of  God. 
Their  history  was  a  long  chapter  of  splendor  and  de- 
feat. When  they  escaped  from  Egyptian  bondage,  and 
reached  Palestine,  their  first  form  of  government  was 
republican,  or  the  rule  of  the  Judges.  From  this  they 
degenerated  into  a  monarchy,  which,  after  the  death 
of  Solomon,  was  divided  into  two  kingdoms  —  Israel 
and  Judah.  Unity  in  both  government  and  faith  was 
gone.  Israel  was  overcome  by  the  Assyrians,  and 
Judah  by  the  Babylonians,  and  both  nations  were  led 
off  into  exile  to  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  the  Eu- 
phrates. Only  a  small  portion  of  Israel,  or  the  ten 
tribes,  returned.  The  captives  of  conquered  Judah 
were  cured  of  their  polytheistic  tendencies,  and,  pre- 
serving their  identity  under  Cyrus  and  his  Persian  suc- 
cessors, returned  to  Palestine.  After  the  dissolution  of 
the  empire  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  had  conquered 
Palestine  b.c.  323,  the  Seleucidse  ruled  in  Syria  and  the 
Ptolemies  in  Egypt.  Between  these  two  the  Jews  led 
a  subject  and  timid  life,  and  finally  submitted  to  the 
Seleucidae.  The  Greek  religion  was  foisted  upon  them. 
l>ut  they  rebelled,  and  determined  to  preserve  their  old 
faith,  and  to  conquer  their  rulers.  Mattathias  and  his 
three  sons  led  the  revolt.     For  a  time  they  were  sue- 


16  SHORT   HISTOEY    OF   THE    EAELY    CHURCH. 

cessful,  and  hoped  to  restore  the  old  Davidic  splendor. 
Pompey  was  at  this  time  in  Asia,  at  the  head  of  the 
Roman  army.  He  was  invited  to  settle  the  dispute. 
He  entered  the  country,  besieged  Jerusalem  b.c.  63, 
and,  as  was  the  Roman  wont,  took  possession  of  the 
country,  and  united  it  with  the  Roman  Empire.  The 
Jews  had  now  lost  all  independence.  Their  later  re- 
A^olts  had  no  other  effect  than  to  tighten  the  Roman 
hold,  and  to  disperse  small  bodies  of  colonists  around 
the  eastern  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean. 

2.  The  Samaritans  were  a  mongrel  religious  body. 
They  consisted  of  returned  Jews  from  Assyria,  who 
brought  with  them  those  elements  of  i3agan  worship) 
which  they  had  absorbed  during  their  captivity.  They 
settled  in  the  valley  of  Shechem,  and  built  their  temple 
on  the  top  of  Mount  Gerizim.  The  sect  still  exists, 
and  consists  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  people. 
Their  city  is  Nablus,  which  lies  in  the  valley  between 
Mounts  Gerizim  and  Ebal.  They  have  a  high-priest, 
and  are  still  in  possession  of  their  revered  copy  of  the 
Pentateuch,  believed  to  be  the  oldest  in  the  world. 

3.  Other  Jewish  Bodies.  The  Pharisees  were  the 
most  educated  of  all  Jewish  classes.  Their  teacliers 
were  versed  in  the  law,  and  represented  the  hopes,  the 
narrowness,  and  the  ritualism  of  the  people.  They 
taught  a  national  revival.  They  originated  as  a  class 
about  B.C.  144,  and  aimed  to  restore  the  waning  faith  to 
its  old  Mosaic  strength.  Inclined  to  allegorical  inter- 
pretation, and  devoted  to  traditions,  they  aimed  to 
supplement  the  Scriptures  by  traditional  accretions. 
The  Sadducees  originated  with  Zadoc,  who  lived  about 
B.C.  250.  They  strove  to  restore  Mosaism,  but  rejected 
tradition.  They  absorbed  some  of  the  elements  of 
pagan  thought,  especially  the  doctrines  of  Epicurus. 


ATTITUDE  OF  JUDAISM  TOWARDS  CHRISTIANITY.      17 

They  rejected  angels,  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the  divine  interference  in 
human  affairs.  The  Essenes  originated  about  b.c.  150. 
Their  belief  was  as  much  Persian  as  Jewish.  They 
lield  the  sun  to  be  a  living  being,  and  that  virtue  and 
vice  inhered  in  matter.  They  led  a  monastic  life,  and 
practised  community  of  goods.  All  of  these  sects  were 
in  full  strength  at  the  time  of  Christ.  The  Essenes 
were  retired,  but  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  were 
strong  and  prominent.  But  all  the  sects  disappeared 
with  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  a.d.  10. 

4.  The  Jews  of  the  Dispersion.  The  Jews  are  the 
wanderers  of  all  history  and  all  continents.  From  the 
time  of  their  captivity  in  Assyria  and  Babylonia  down 
to  the  present  day,  they  have  held  their  pilgrim  staff  in 
hand.  About  B.C.  350  we  find  a  large  colony  on  the 
shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  Syria,  under  the  reign  of 
Seleucus  Nicator  (b.c.  312-328),  received  avast  Jewish 
population.  In  the  insecure  interval  between  Alex- 
ander the  Great  and  a.d.  70,  they  had  gone,  in  colo- 
nies, into  Assyria,  Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  Asia  Minor, 
Crete,  Cyprus,  and  the  ^gean  Islands.  In  Lydia  and 
Phrygia  there  was  a  colony  of  two  thousand  families. 
They  generally  preserved  their  identity. 

5.  The  Jews  of  Alexandria.  The  most  concentrated 
Jewish  population  outside  of  Palestine  was  in  north- 
ern Africa.  Egypt,  Lybia,  and  Cyrene  abounded  in 
Jews.  Alexandria  Avas  their  chief  centre.  Even  under 
Alexander,  the  founder  of  the  city,  large  numbers  set- 
tled there,  while  he  assigned  eight  thousand  Samari- 
tans to  the  Thebaid.  Extensive  privileges  were  granted 
the  Jews.  They  not  only  thrived  in  commerce,  but 
developed  thorough  and  broad  scholarship.  Philo,  who 
attempted  to  harmonize  Jewish  theology  and  Greek 

2 


18  SHORT  HISTORY   OP  THE   EARLY  CHURCH. 

philosophy,  was  a  Jew,  whose  learning  was  profound, 
and  worthy  of  high  praise.  The  Greek  version  of  the 
Old  Testament,  the  Septiiagint,  was  a  great  triumph  of 
Jewish  learning. 

6.  The  Roman  Jews.  The  first  Jewish  colony  in 
Rome  consisted  of  captives  brought  by  Pompey  from 
Palestine.  They  were  assigned  a  distinct  part  of  the 
city,  which  they  have  occupied  ever  since — the  present 
Ghetto.  Julius  Ca3sar  granted  the  Jews  special  favors. 
They  were  declared  freedmen  {libertini),  had  their  syn- 
agogues, observed  their  festivals,  and  held  the  Sabbath 
as  a  sacred  day.  The  cultivated  Romans,  however, 
always  despised  them.  They  Avere  the  usual  objects  of 
raillery  and  satire.  Juvenal  held  them  up  to  contempt 
by  saying  that  they  prayed  to  nothing  but  the  clouds 
and  the  empty  heavens. 

7.  The  Jewish  Colonies  as  Apostolic  Fields.  The  apos- 
tles observed  a  common  plan  in  preaching  the  gospel. 
They  went  first  to  the  Jews,  and  then  a])pealed  to  the 
outlying  populations.  Paul's  success  among  them  was 
often  signal,  but  from  them  came  also  his  most  bitter 
foes.  There  were  great  advantages  in  making  the  Jews 
his  first  auditors.  They  were  already  familiar  with  the 
sacred  history  antecedent  to  Christianity.  They  had 
heard  of  the  marvellous  career  of  Jesus.  Their  annual 
visits  to  Jerusalem,  to  attend  the  festivals,  had  made 
them  acquainted  with  the  popular  estimate  of  the  new 
gospel.  "To  the  Jew  first,"  was  his  invariable  plan. 
But  there  was  no  long  pause.  "Also  to  the  Greek," 
was  the  next  step  of  the  tireless  preacher. 


Chapter  V. 

THE    PERIOD    OF   UNIVERSAL   PERSECUTION. 

1.  The  Jewish  Hostility.  The  political  prostration 
of  the  Jews  embittered  them  against  the  Christians. 
There  was  nothing  in  common  between  the  Jewish 
sects  and  the  early  Church.  The  scepticism  of  the 
Sadducees  and  the  disappointed  hopes  of  the  Pharisees 
combined  to  intensify  the  popular  hate.  The  council 
in  Jerusalem  cast  Peter  and  John  into  prison,  and  put 
Stephen  to  death.  A  general  persecution,  under  Herod 
Agrippa,  a.d.  44,  broke  out,  and  James  the  Elder  fell  a 
victim  to  its  rage.  The  Christians  took  refuge  in  Pella, 
beyond  the  Jordan.  Bar-cochba  led  a  final  popular  Jew- 
ish revolt  against  the  Roman  authority,  a.d.  132,  but  was 
defeated  by  Julius  Severus,  and  Jerusalem  became  a 
heap  of  ruins.  The  Roman  emperor  Hadrian  tried  to 
destroy  the  attachment  of  the  Christians  to  the  sacred 
associations  of  the  city  by  erecting  on  Calvary  a  tem- 
ple to  Venus,  and,  over  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  a  statue  to 
Jupiter.  But  his  efforts,  ^vhile  pleasing  to  the  Jews, 
had  no  material  effect.  The  Jews,  now  that  all  hope 
of  national  independence  was  gone,  established  a  school 
at  Tiberias,  where  they  tried  to  achieve  with  the  pen 
what  they  had  failed  to  accomplish  by  the  sword.  Their 
misrepresentations  of  Christ  and  his  doctrines  formed 
an  important  element  in  the  general  literary  attack  on 
Christianity  during  the  first  three  centuries. 

2.  The  Outbreak  of  the  Pagan  Persecution.    Christian- 


20  SHORT  HISTORY   OF    THE    EARLY   CHURCH. 

ity  soon  extended  beyond  Jewish  bounds,  and  became 
a  thing  which  might  well  arouse  the  fears  of  the  whole 
Roman  Empire.  In  Rome  the  Christians  were  regarded 
as  simply  a  new  Jewish  sect.  And  when,  in  the  middle 
of  the  first  century,  a  disturbance  arose  among  the 
Jews  of  Rome,  both  Jews  and  Christians  w^ere  banished 
by  the  emperor  Claudius.  Nero  represented  the  popu- 
lar hostility  to  Christianity.  He  was  believed  to  have 
set  fire  to  Rome,  where  the  flames  had  full  sway  for 
nine  days.  He  threw  the  blame,  however,  on  the  Chris- 
tians, and  resorted  to  the  most  barbarous  methods  to 
show  his  rage.  He  even  had  some  Christians  smeared 
with  pitch  and  burned  alive,  while  he  caused  others  to 
be  sewn  in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts  and  thrown  out  to 
the  dogs.  The  persecution  continued  until  his  death. 
Under  Domitian  (a.d.  81-96)  a  milder  policy  of  hostil- 
ity w^is  observed,  the  oppression  of  the  Christians  be- 
ing chiefly  confined  to  exile  and  the  seizure  of  their 
property.v 

3.  The  Grounds  of  Hostility.  The  twelve  tables  of 
the  Roman  law  forbade  the  existence  of  foreign  faiths 
within  the  dominions,  but  the  habit  had  been  to  con- 
ciliate the  conquered  provinces  by  toleration  of  the 
existing  religions.  The  appearance  of  the  Christians, 
however,  was  the  signal  for  revival  of  the  old  prohibi- 
tion. The  bonds  uniting  the  Christians  were  close. 
Their  separate  services  were  declared  an  act  of  hostil- 
ity to  the  country.  They  were  accused  of  disobedience 
to  the  laws,  and  of  a  spirit  ripe  at  any  moment  for 
insurrection.  They  were  charged  with  immoral  prac- 
tices in  their  services.  All  popular  calamities,  such  as 
earthquakes,  inundations,  ])estilence,  and  defeat  in  war, 
were  attributed  to  them.  A  popular  proverb  ran  thus: 
"  Deus  non  pluit — due  ad  Christianos  !"     "  It  does  not 


THE    PERIOD    OF   UNIVERSAL   PERSECUTION.  21 

rain — lead  us  against  the  Christians!"  Tertiillian  has 
left  this  record  of  the  Roman  habit  of  charging  the 
disciples  of  Christ  with  all  possible  calamities:  "If  the 
Tiber  overflow  its  banks,  if  the  Nile  does  not  water  the 
fields,  if  the  clouds  refuse  rain,  if  the  earth  shake,  if 
famine  or  storms  prevail,  the  cry  always  is,  *  Pitch  the 
Christians  to  the  lions!'" 

4.  New  Persecutions.  Trajan  {a.d.  98-117)  contin- 
ued the  policy  of  his  predecessors,  but  in  milder  form. 
He  gave  orders  to  the  proconsul  Pliny,  in  Bithynia, 
not  to  seek  out  the  Christians,  but,  when  charges  were 
brought  against  them,  to  give  them  opportunity  to 
recant,  and,  in  case  of  refusal,  to  sacrifice  them  to  the 
gods.  The  persecution  under  Trajan  extended  to  Pal- 
estine and  Syria.  Under  Hadrian  (a.d.  117-138)  and 
Antoninus  Pius  (a.d.  138-161)  the  popular  fury  against 
the  Christians  increased  to  great  violence.  While  these 
emperors  granted  the  Church  no  favor,  their  attitude 
was  less  hostile  than  that  of  some  of  their  predecessors. 
Marcus  Aurelius  (a.d.  161-180)  was  thoughtful  and 
calm.  He  was  a  Stoic  by  profession,  and,  while  he 
had  no  warm  reverence  for  the  national  religion,  he 
showed  no  sympathy  with  the  Christians.  He  was  re- 
pelled by  their  devotion  to  Christ  and  their  readiness 
to  suffer.  He  tolerated  violence,  and  under  him  the 
persecutions  at  Smyrna,  where  Polycarp  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom, and  at  Lyons  and  V^ienne,  in  Gaul,  took  place. 

5.  Alternate  Rest  and  Persecution.  There  was  now^ 
a  sliglit  relaxation  of  violence,  but  under  Septimius 
Severiis  (a.d.  193-211)  the  Christians  were  treated  with 
cruelty.  The  persecution  was  widespread,  and  the 
martyrdoms  were  numerous.  Alexander  Severus  pro- 
fessed to  be  an  Eclectic  in  faith,  and  regarded  Jesus 
as  one  of  the  gods.     He  placed  a  bust  of  Christ  beside 


22  SHORT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

those  of  Abraham,  Orpheus,  and  Apollonius  of  Tyana. 
He  instituted  no  active  measures  of  hostility.  Decius 
had  but  a  short  reign  (a.d.  249-251),  and  yet  he  im- 
proved his  time  industriously  by  endeavoring  to  exter- 
minate the  Christians.  His  persecution  was  general, 
and  as  violent  as  that  under  Nero. 

6.  Final  Efforts  to  Destroy  Christianity.  The  reign  of 
Decius  was  succeeded  by  a  brief  interval  of  peace, 
which  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  hostile  attitude 
of  Valerian  (a.d.  253-260).  Under  Aurelian,  Diocle- 
tian, Galerius,  and  Maximinus  the  persecution  raged 
with  varied  fury.  Great  political  complications  arose. 
The  changes  in  the  imj^erial  succession  were  frequent, 
and  new  methods  of  repression  of  the  Christians  were 
constantly  adopted.  During  the  whole  time,  however, 
the  Christian  Church  grew  in  numbers  and  aggressive 
force.  From  a.d.  64  to  313,  when  Constantino  granted 
an  edict  of  toleration  to  the  Christians,  persecutions 
prevailed  about  seventy  years.  All  forms  of  torture  and 
violent  death  were  adopted.  There  was  no  security  at 
home.  The  exiles  were  numerous,  but  the  Christians 
carried  their  faith  and  life  with  them  to  their  new 
places  of  abode,  where  they  built  up  societies,  which 
in  turn  became  centres  for  the  wider  dissemination  of 
the  gospel.  Christianity  had  conquered  in  the  realm 
of  political  life.  It  was  now  safe  from  the  hand  of 
any  Roman  ruler. 


Chapter   VI. 

CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP. 

1.  Simplicity  of  Forms.  The  Christians  were  at  first 
greatly  attached  to  the  temple  in  Jerusalem.  They 
met  within  its  precincts.  There  Avas  no  disposition  to 
erect  separate  sanctuaries,  and,  had  there  been,  the 
means  to  meet  the  expense  were  too  limited.  In  time, 
however,  the  hostility  of  the  Jews  made  it  impossible 
to  convene  in  either  the  temple  or  any  room  near  it. 
The  Christians  were,  therefore,  driven  to  private  houses, 
where  one  room  served  the  purpose  of  a  sanctuary.  A 
small  platform  {cathedra)  served  for  the  speaker  or 
reader,  while  a  table  {ara)  was  used  for  the  celebration 
of  the  Lord's  Supper, 

2.  Order  of  Service.  The  services  consisted  chiefly 
of  reading  selections  from  the  Old  Testament,  the  apos- 
tolical epistles,  and,  latest  of  all,  the  gospels.  The 
reading  was  attended  with  copious  exposition.  The 
day  of  the  elaborate  homily,  with  a  short  scriptural 
passage  as  a  mere  motto,  had  not  yet  arrived.  All 
that  was  said  was  meant  to  give  to  the  hearer  a  deeper 
knowledge  of  the  divine  word.  Singing  of  psalms  and 
hymns  was  an  important  part  of  the  service.  It  might 
be  led  by  an  individual,  but  the  music  was  by  the 
whole  congregation.  The  Psalms  of  David  and  the 
rhythmic  parts  of  the  prophecies  furnished  the  favorite 
basis.  Prayer  was  connected  with  the  singing,  and  the 
congregation  responded  "Amen"  at  the  close.     The 


24  SHOET   HISTORY   OF  THE    EARLY   CHURCH. 

concluding  part  of  the  service  was  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Until  about  a.d.  150,  the  agape,  or  love-feast,  was  con- 
nected with  the  communion  service,  but,  because  of  its 
abuse,  was  afterwards  separated  from  it.  After  the 
prayer  the  kiss  of  charity  was  given,  and  the  apostoli- 
cal benediction  was  pronounced. 

3.  The  Sacraments.  There  were  two  sacraments  in 
the  early  church  —  the  Lord's  Supper  and  Baptism. 
After  the  council  at  Jerusalem,  which  abrogated  the 
Jewish  initiatory  ceremonial  as  necessary  for  admis- 
sion to  the  Church,  baptism  was  held  to  be  the  only 
visible  condition  of  reception.  The  formula,  "In  the 
name  of  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,"  was  ob- 
served from  the  beginning  of  the  Apostolic  Church. 

4.  The  Sabbath,  or  seventh  day,  continued  to  be  ob- 
served by  the  Christians  who  had  entered  the  Church 
from  Judaism.  But  the  Sunday,  or  first  day  of  the 
week,  was  also  observed,  in  memory  of  our  Lord's  res- 
urrection. Gradually  the  Sunday  became  more  promi- 
nent, and,  finally,  the  observance  of  the  seventh  day 
was  discontinued  entirely.  Those  members  of  the 
Church  who  had  been  Jews  were  inclined  to  regard 
with  reverence  the  festivals  to  which  they  had  been 
accustomed  in  their  former  communion.  These,  how- 
ever, they  relinquished,  with  the  exception  of  two, 
Easter  and  Pentecost,  to  which  also  the  Gentile  Chris- 
tians adhered,  as  these  festivals  commemorated  two 
great  events  in  Christian  history — our  Lord's  resurrec- 
tion and  the  descent  of  the  Spirit. 


Chapter  YII. 
the  life  of  christians. 

1.  Contrast  with  Paganism.  Every  part  of  Christian 
life  was  in  direct  antagonism  to  that  of  the  pagan 
Greeks  and  Romans.  The  Christians  obliterated  all 
social  and  national  differences.  No  sooner  was  a  new 
member  received  than  he  found  himself  in  the  midst 
of  a  brotherhood.  "These  Christians,"  says  Bunsen, 
"  belonged  to  no  nation  and  to  no  state ;  but  their 
fatherland  in  heaven  was  to  them  a  reality,  and  the 
love  of  the  brethren,  in  truth  and  not  in  words,  made 
the  Christian  congregation  the  foreshadowing  of  a 
Christian  commonwealth,  and  a  model  for  all  ages  to 


2.  Care  of  the  Needy.  The  relief  of  the  poor  and  suf- 
fering received  early  attention.  Paul  collected  contri- 
butions from  the  Greek  Christians  in  Asia  Minor  for 
the  poor  in  Jerusalem.  All  his  epistles  prove  that  the 
poor  in  each  society  were  constantly  in  his  mind.  No 
needy  body  of  believers  was  forgotten  in  its  silent  sor- 
row. When,  later,  persecutions  becapie  violent  and 
widespread,  the  spirit  of  apostolic  sympathy  was  sus- 
tained in  all  its  fervor.  The  pagans  neglected  their 
needy.  Their  religion  had  no  heart.  But  the  Chris- 
tians sought  out  the  suffering,  and  lielped  them  with 
lavish  hand.  During  the  pestilence  in  North  Africa, 
in  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  the  pagans  deserted 
their  sick  and  dying,  and  stripped  their  bodies  of  valu- 


26  SHORT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

ables,  while  the  Christians  divided  their  means  with 
the  suffering,  cleared  the  streets  of  decomposing  bod- 
ies, and  nursed  the  sick  with  tenderness  and  devotion. 

3.  Elevation  of  Woman.  The  early  prominence  given 
to  woman  was  an  important  factor.  Elizabeth,  Anna, 
and  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus  became  early  witnesses, 
however  unconscious,  to  the  dignity  and  worth  of 
woman  in  the  Christian  system.  The  women  men- 
tioned by  Paul  in  his  epistles  w^ere  examples  of  devo- 
tion and  wisdom  in  the  spread  of  the  gospel.  In  times 
of  persecution  woman  presented  a  sublime  spectacle  of 
readiness  and  composure  in  the  hour  of  death.  Per- 
petua  and  Felicitas,  who  cheerfully  welcomed  martyr- 
dom, became  types  of  womanly  heroism  in  every  part 
of  Christendom. 

4.  The  Slave.  Christianity  applied  its  humane  spirit 
to  the  slave.  Paul's  chart  of  freedom  ran  thus:  "  There 
is  neither  bond  nor  free."  The  slave,  the  moment  he 
became  a  Christian,  became  a  brother  with  his  master. 
As  Christianity  expanded,  its  tendency  was  to  bring 
the  oppressed  and  the  oppressor  together,  upon  a  com- 
mon plane  of  brotherly  equality.  Paul's  appeal  to 
Philemon,  to  show  kindness  to  the  slave  Onesimus,  and 
receive  him  back  again,  was  an  index  of  the  power 
of  Christianity  to  soften,  and  even  obliterate,  all  the 
asperity  attendant  upon  bondage  in  man. 

5.  The  Social  Revolution.  Christianity  triumphed  not 
only  in  the  broad  field  of  territorial  expansion,  but 
in  the  more  subtile  department  of  the  whole  structure 
of  social  life.  Paganism  was  only  a  whited  sepulchre. 
Its  splendor  was  an  exterior  thing  alone.  It  created 
no  happy  homes,  for  woman  was  without  worth,  and 
children  were  no  blessing.  Wherever  the  Christians 
lived  they  built  up  happy  households. 


Chapter  VIII. 

ECCLESIASTICAL    ORGANIZATIOX. 

1.  The  Divine  and  Human  Elements.  Tlie  constitution 
of  the  early  Church  was  in  part  of  divine  ordering. 
But  this  was  only  in  outline.  The  apostolate  was  fun- 
damental and  original,  but  temporary.  It  was  designed 
as  the  great  introductory  force,  which  should  cease  so 
soon  as  it  had  served  its  purpose.  From  this,  as  a 
basis,  the  permanent  orders  of  presbyter  and  deacon 
developed.  A  large  measure  of  liberty  was  left  to  the 
judgment  of  the  Church,  as  new  exigencies  and  larger 
growth  might  demand. 

2.  The  Temporary  Officers.  To  these  belonged  the 
apostles.  The  condition  was,  that  the  apostle  must 
have  seen  Christ,  in  the  flesh  or  in  his  risen  state. 
Their  work  was  evangelistic  and  organizing.  Then 
came  the  prophets.  They  were  inspired  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  for  the  special  work  of  teaching  higher  revela- 
tions. Foretelling  events  was  not  their  controlling 
function,  but  the  revelation  of  God's  will,  especially  in 
the  choice  of  persons  for  great  service  in  the  Church, 
The  prophet  w^as  not  necessarily  an  apostle,  but  the 
apostle  was  a  prophet.  Paul,  Agabus,  Simeon,  Barna- 
bas, Manaen,  Judas  the  Evangelist,  and  Silas  belonged 
to  the  prophetic  class.  To  them  came  the  evangelists. 
They  were  preachers  without  defined  limits,  and  were 
aids  to  the  apostles,  or,  as  Rothe  says,  "  apostolic  dele- 
gates."    Their  work  was  preparatory, — the  preaching 


28  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

in  new  societies  until  organization  was  established. 
Philip,  Timothy,  Titus,  Silas  or  Silvanus,  Luke,  Joim, 
Mark,  Clement,  and  Epaphras  belonged  to  the  evangel- 
ist class. 

3.  The  Permanent  Officers,  {a)  Bisliops  and  Elders. 
Here  were,  first  of  all,  the  bishops  or  presbyters.  The 
word  bishop  {episcopos)  was  of  Greek  origin,  and  was 
in  common  use  among  both  Greeks  and  Romans  as 
a  political  supervisor.  The  societies  of  the  West, 
which  consisted  of  members  from  paganism,  used  the 
word  for  the  chief  or  superintending  pastor,  as  they 
tvere  already  familiar  with  it.  The  converts  from  Ju- 
daism naturally  took  the  synagogue  as  their  model, 
and  as  the  elder  pastor  (^presbuteros)  was  the  chief 
or  superintending  pastor  of  the  synagogue,  they  ap- 
plied it  to  the  chief  pastor  of  the  Christian  Church. 
There  was  not  the  least  difference  in  the  original  du- 
ties of  the  bishop  and  the  j^resbyter.  In  each  case 
he  was  the  spiritual  head  of  one  church  or  society. 
Later,  when  churches  increased,  and  the  supervising 
office  was  of  wider  scope,  the  Western  word  supplanted 
the  Eastern,  and  the  term  bishop  was  used,  while  that 
of  presbyter  went  into  the  background.  But  the 
bishop,  in  the  early  and  pure  period  of  the  Church, 
was  of  no  higher  order  than  the  presbyter.  The  duties 
of  one  were  those  of  both  :  "  To  feed  the  flock  of  God 
.  .  .  taking  the  oversight  thereof  "  (1  Peter  v.  2). 

{b)  Deacons.  These  were  both  an  order  and  an  of- 
fice. The  duties  are  minutely  described  in  the  Script- 
ures (Acts  vi.  1-8).  They  aided  the  apostles,  had  care 
of  the  poor  and  sick,  assisted  in  administering  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  preached.  The  deaconesses  were 
a  special  office,  designed  for  caring  for  the  sick,  the 
aged,  the  female  poor,  and  the  instruction  of  orphans. 


Chapter  IX. 

EBIONISM    AND    GNOSTICISM. 

1.  Disposition  to  make  Terms.  Christianity  was  mak- 
ing steady  progress  in  every  lield.  Some  of  the  more 
advanced  thinkers  in  both  Judaism  and  paganism  saw 
in  the  Christian  system  so  much  that  commended  itself 
to  universal  confidence  that  each  proposed  to  adapt  it 
to  his  own  faith  and  philosophy.  This  was  a  new  plan, 
more  dangerous  to  Christianity  by  far  than  outward 
opposition.  In  each  case  the  overture  was  strengthened 
by  people  within  the  Christian  fold,  who  responded  to 
the  flattering  proposition,  though  without  represent- 
ing the  spirit  of  the  whole  body. 

2.  The  Ebionites.  After  the  council  in  Jerusalem 
which  settled  the  great  Pauline  principle  of  the  free- 
dom of  Cliristian  converts  from  the  Mosaic  law,  there 
remained  a  body  of  Christians  who  would  not  accept 
the  conclusion.  Jerusalem  was  their  centre.  They 
were  of  two  classes — those  who  saw  in  Christianity  the 
fulfilment  of  all  that  was  worthy  in  Judaism,  and  those 
who  were  more  conservative,  and  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge the  new  faith  as  the  culmination  of  Mosaism. 
Out  of  these  two  tendencies  sprang  Ebionism.  They 
held  that  the  Mosaic  law  was  still  in  force  ;  its  close 
observance  was  a  necessity  for  salvation;  Christianity 
fulfilled  the  law, but  did  not  abrogate  it;  Christ  was  the 
prophet  of  Israel's  deliverance;  he  was  a  mere  man; 
his  generation  was  natural;  the  Divine  Spirit  entered 


so  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

him  at  baptism;  Christ  was  a  good  Jew;  his  piety  was 
bis  claim  to  Messiahship;  he  performed  miracles;  and 
be  supplemented  the  law  by  his  own  commands.  The 
Ebionites  rejected  Paul's  writings,  as  not  Jewish 
enough.  They  had  communities  in  Asia  Minor,  Cy- 
prus, and  in  Rome,  and  existed  down  to  the  fourth 
century. 

3.  The  Nazarseans  more  nearly  approached  Christian- 
ity. They  accepted  Paul's  writings,  and  held  that 
Christ  was  the  Son  of  God,  and  that  his  generation  was 
divine.  They  disappeared  in  the  fourth  century.  The 
Elcesaites,  or  Sampsseans,  were  of  similar  Jewish  pro- 
clivities, but  had  a  stronger  Oriental  element  in  their 
faith.  They  kept  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  retained  sacri- 
fices, held  that  oil  and  salt  are  emblems  of  spiritual 
communication,  and  prayed  with  their  faces  towards 
the  sun. 

4.  Gnosticism  in  General.  This  system  was  a  combi- 
nation of  the  new  Platonic  philosophy  with  Oriental 
theosophy,  the  two  proposing  to  appropriate  certain 
Christian  elements.  Philo,  a  learned  Jew  of  Alexan- 
dria, born  about  a.d.  40,  furnished  the  most  decided 
contribution.  He  aimed  to  unite  Judaism  and  Pla- 
tonism.  He  regarded  God  and  the  world  as  forming  a 
dualism,  both  finite  and  infinite.  He  believed  that  God 
could  not  assume  visible  form,  but  can  reveal  himself 
to  the  soul.  Tlie  Logos  is  a  divine  emanation,  which 
the  Holy  Spirit,  tlie  Divine  Wisdom,  imparted  directly 
to  the  first  men,  and  to  all  who  have  since  striven  after 
likeness  to  God.  From  the  fundamental  ideas  of  Philo 
the  great  Gnostic  system  developed  into  special  sys- 
tems, but  all  of  tiieni  were  strained  accommodations 
to  Christian  ider.s. 

5.  Jewish  Gnosticism.     Cerinthus  (a.d.  100)  was  tho 


EBIONISM    AND    GNOSTICISM.  31 

earliest  representative.  He  held  that  Judaism  was  the 
world's  preparation  for  Christianity;  that  Jesus  was 
the  natural  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary,  and  arrived  at  his 
])ure  state  at  baptism  and  by  his  holy  life;  that  his 
death  was  not  a  mediatorial  service;  but  that  he  would 
come  again,  and  establish  a  vast  earthly  kingdom. 
I^asilides  taught  in  Alexandria  about  a.d.  130.  He 
held  that  the  universe  is  a  dualism — deity  and  matter. 
Between  these  there  is  a  great  multitude  of  aeons,  or 
emanations  from  God,  who  record  his  glory  and  make 
it  fruitful.  Each  nation  is  ruled  by  an  jeon.  The 
Jewish  geon  taught  by  means  of  Moses  and  the  proph- 
ets. But  truth  was  universal — Greek,  Jews,  and  Per- 
sians shared  it.  The  highest  feon  was  recorded  to 
Jesus  at  his  baptism.  Basilides  was  cautious,  not  com- 
mitting himself  to  any  of  the  extremes  which  consti- 
tuted the  body  of  the  Gnostic  system.  Valentinian 
(a.d.  138)  first  taught  in  Alexandria,  but  afterwards 
removed  to  Rome.  He  was  at  first  a  Christian,  but 
withdrew  from  the  Church.  He  borrowed  his  chief 
ideas  from  Plato.  His  fundamental  doctrine  was 
emanation.  The  supreme  God  lives  in  silence  and  sol- 
itude. But,  to  be  perfect,  he  must  love,  and  in  order 
to  love  there  must  be  an  object.  So  he  began  to  em- 
anate. The  feons  are  personalities,  which  emanate 
from  him.  Man,  the  Logos,  and  the  Church,  are  divine 
emanations.  Man  is  redeemed  through  the  Logos. 
The  crucifixion  represented  the  divine  might  by  which 
the  world  is  purified  from  sin.  Valentinian  was  the 
founder  of  the  largest  Gnostic  school.  His  chief  dis- 
ciples were  Heracleon,  Ptolemaeus,  and  Bardesanes. 

6.  Oriental  and  Pagan  Gnostics.  The  Ophites  (ser- 
pent worshippers)  were  the  first  of  this  class.  They 
existed  as  a  small  sect  in  Egypt  at  the  time  of  Christ, 


32  SHORT    HISTOEY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

and  afterwards  adopted  a  perverted  type  of  Christian- 
ity, but  retained  a  large  measure  of  Oriental  theosophy. 
The  pleroma,  or  highest  spirit,  develops  itself  in  aeons; 
and  from  the  fourth  one  there  floats  a  ray  of  light, 
which  combines  with  matter,  and  becorties  the  Avorld- 
soul.  Man  is  created.  To  defeat  his  elevation  the 
serpent  is  prepared.  The  serpent  becomes  the  type  of 
all  wisdom,  and  is  worthy  of  worship.  Man,  by  his 
fall,  first  arrives  at  the  consciousness  of  freedom  and 
mastery.  There  were  two  minor  Ophite  sects — the 
Cainites  and  the  Sethians.  Carpocrates  built  his  sys- 
tem out  of  fragments  of  Buddhism  and  Neo-Platonism. 
He  placed  all  faiths  on  the  same  plane — Orpheus,  Py- 
thagoras, Plato,  and  Christ  were  quite  the  same,  accord- 
ing to  him.  His  sect  degenerated  into  wild  libertinism. 
In  Mani  and  the  Manichseans  we  reach  the  limits  of 
Oriental  Gnosticism.  Mani  made  the  faith  of  Zoroaster 
the  basis  of  his  system,  but  added  a  superstructure  of 
Buddhism  and  Christianity.  Fatalism  pervaded  the 
whole  structure.  The  sect  continued  down  to  the  end 
of  the  third  century,  when  Diocletian  issued  an  edict 
for  its  suppression.  The  Ophites  elevated  man  to  su- 
preme importance.  Their  estimate  has  been  character- 
ized in  the  following  lines  : 

"  0  thou  citizen  of  Heaven  ! 
Thou  much-praised  Man ! 
From  thee  comes  Father, 
Through  thee  comes  Mother, — 
Those  two  immortal  names, 
The  parents  of  the  ^ons." 

7.  Independent  Gnosticism.  Saturninus,  who  died  about 
A.D.  174,  lield  that  the  supreme  Father  has  produced, 
by  intermediate  archangels  and  powers,  seven  angels, 
who  are  the  sovereigns  of  the  material  world.    Among 


EBIONISM    AND    GNOSTICISM.  33 

them  is  the  God  of  the  Jews.  Man  was  created,  but 
with  infirmities.  The  Saviour  came  to  aid  him  towards 
final  development.  Tatian  was  a  native  of  Assyria, 
but  emigrated  to  Rome.  His  chief  tenet  w^as  antago- 
nism to  marriage.  He  died  about  a.d.  174.  The  En- 
cratites  and  Hudropastrians  were  followers  of  Tatian. 
The  tendency  to  decline  w^as  manifested  in  all  the 
Gnostic  schools.  Marcion  and  his  followers  represented 
the  reformatory  movement.  He  lived  about  a.d.  150. 
He  avoided  all  the  extremes  of  his  predecessors,  but 
leaned  towards  Christianity.  He  recognized  Paul  as 
the  only  veritable  apostle,  admitted  one  gospel,  a  dis- 
tortion of  Luke,  and  rejected  all  tradition  and  esoteric 
doctrines.  In  his  later  years  he  is  said  to  have  re- 
gretted his  Gnostic  vagaries,  and  to  have  sought  re- 
admission  to  the  Church.  Of  all  Gnostics  he  was  the 
nearest  approach  to  the  true  Christian. 

8.  The  Place  of  Gnosticism.  The  service  which  Gnos- 
ticism rendered  to  the  Church  was  to  make  the  pagan 
mind  acquainted  with  some  fundamental  Christian 
truths, to  disintegrate  the  fabric  of  the  pagan  philosophy, 
and  to  prove,  by  its  own  fruitless  endeavors,  the  im- 
possibility of  combining  any  system  with  Christianity. 
The  Gnostics  were  a  proud  class.  They  set  out  with 
claims  to  all  knowledge,  approached  Christianity  as 
they  would  any  other  faith,  and  proposed  to  weigh  it  in 
their  own  small  balance.  They  made  reason  the  test 
of  religion,  and  were  devoid  of  all  appreciation  of  the 
spiritual  life.  The  danger  to  Christianity  of  all  the 
Gnostic  systems  was  in  winning  Christians  to  the  adop- 
tion of  them.  But  the  Christian  teachers  were  prompt 
in  giving  warning  of  their  corrupt  nature,  and  no  great 
secession  to  them  ever  occurred.  The  Christians,  as  a 
body,  regarded  the  Gnostics  with  aversion,  because  of 


34  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

the  claim  of  many  of  them  that  they  believed  in  the 
best  part  of  Christianity.  While  Marcion  was  the  near- 
est approach  to  the  Christian,  the  interview  of  Polycarp 
wdth  him  one  day,  as  the  t-wo  met  in  a  street  in  Rome, 
indicates  the  Christian  hostility  to  all  Gnostics.  Poly- 
carp was  stopped  by  Marcion,  who  said:  "Do  you  not 
recognize  me?"  The  father  replied  promptly:  "Cer- 
tainly I  do.     I  know  the  first-born  of  Satan  !" 


GNOSTIC   SYMBOLS. 


Chapter  X. 

THE  PAGAN  LITERARY  ATTACK. 

1,  The  Growing  Importance  of  Christianity,  in  the 
mind  of  the  pagan  world,  became  very  apparent  in  the 
attempts  now  made  in  literature  to  destroy  its  very 
foundations.  By  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  it 
became  evident  to  the  cultivated  Romans  that  some- 
thing more  than  imperial  opposition  was  necessary  to 
arrest  the  new  faith.  Every  persecution  left  Christian- 
ity more  solid,  aggressive,  and  hopeful  than  it  found  it. 
During  the  second  and  third  centuries  the  two  hostile 
forces  proceeded  together — the  sword  and  the  pen. 
Each  pursued  its  own  path,  and  each  hoped  to  win  by 
help  from  the  other.  The  Christians  met  the  imperial 
opposition  by  non-resistance,  but  ceaseless  evangeliza- 
tion. They  met  the  antagonism  of  literature  by  such 
bold  and  masterful  logic,  and  by  such  strong  appeal  to 
facts,  that  the  whole  structure  of  paganism  was  shaken 
by  their  arguments. 

2,  The  Grounds  for  Pagan  Alarm.  The  Greek  and 
Roman  writers  saw  in  Christianity  certain  peculiarities 
well  calculated  to  give  them  alarm.  They  had  to  deal 
with  a  new  historical  phenomenon.  They  saw,  first, 
that  the  new  religion  was  based  upon  certain  writings, 
reaching  back  to  the  dawn  of  history,  and  culminating 
later  in  the  life  of  the  Founder  and  in  the  exposition 
of  his  doctrines;  second,  that  there  was  an  historical 
basis  for  Christianity;  third,  that  it  dealt  with  funda- 


36  SHOET   HISTORY    OF   THE   EARLY   CHURCH. 

mental  moral  themes;  fourth,  that  the  people  profess- 
ing faith  in  the  doctrines  never  grew  weary  of  them; 
fifth,  that  the  doctrines  developed  pure  and  heroic 
lives;  sixth,  that  the  scriptural  cosmogony  was  more 
reasonable  and  consistent  than  that  of  Hesiod;  seventh, 
that  the  character  of  Christ  was  without  a  blemish; 
and  eighth,  that  his  death  had  imparted  to  his  follow- 
ers a  zeal  which  nothing  had  been  able  to  arrest.  To 
overcome  such  a  system  was  a  serious  problem.  But 
both  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  witli  much  self-con- 
sciousness, did  not  hesitate  to  undertake  the  task  of 
demolition.  The  wise  methods  by  which  their  work 
was  met  by  Christian  writers,  and  the  fearless  spirit  in 
which  the  latter  wrought,  was  a  great  surprise.  It  is 
one  of  the  wonders  of  all  literature. 

3.  General  References,  The  hostile  attitude  of  even 
general  historians  can  be  seen  in  mere  allusions.  Tacitus 
dismisses  the  subject  by  saying  that  Christ  was  the 
founder  of  a  new  sect,  that  he  had  been  crucified  by 
Pontius  Pilate,  that  his  system  was  a  deadly  supersti- 
tion, and  that  the  Christians  were  obnoxious  to  the 
human  race.  Antoninus  says  that  the  soul  must  be 
ready  to  leave  the  body  by  a  mere  obstinacy.  Juvenal 
sneered  at  the  Christian  adoration  of  the  heavens.  Ar- 
rian  reports  Epictetus  as  protesting  against  the  Gali- 
lean fearlessness  of  danger,  and  the  doctrine  that  God 
created  all  things.  Lucian  was  as  severe  on  Christian- 
ity as  on  the  other  religions,  all  of  which  he  cast  into 
a  common  vortex  of  worthlcssness.  He  called  Christ  a 
magician,  and  parodied  the  career  of  Jonah,  our  Lord's 
walking  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  John's  description 
of  the  New  Jerusalem. 

4.  Celsus,  Porphyry,  and  Hierocles  were  the  strongest 
assailants  of  (Christianity.    Celsus  lived  about  a.d.  150, 


THE  PAGAN  LITERARY  ATTACK.  37 

He  held  to  a  chief  deity,  a  superintending  providence, 
and  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  These  views  he  de- 
rived from  the  Platonic  philosophy.  But  when  he  ex- 
amined Christianity,  he  lost  sight  of  the  parallel  of  these 
fundamental  truths  with  the  Christian  system.  His 
antagonism  was  bitter.  He  assailed  the  Old  Testament, 
but  levelled  his  attacks  chiefly  against  the  alleged 
weaknesses  in  the  career  and  character  of  Jesus.  Por- 
phyry, born  about  a.d.  233,  aimed  to  show  that  the 
pagan  world  presented  higher  magical  characters  than 
Jesus,  and  tliat  the  gospel  history  abounds  in  hopeless 
contradictions.  His  Candid  Treatise  against  the  Chris- 
tians was  an  attempt  to  show  a  parallel  between  the 
sorcery  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana  ^nd  Jesus,  with  a 
large  balance  in  favor  of  the  former. 

5.  General  Charges  against  Christianity.  Obscurer 
writers  followed  willingly  in  the  footprints  of  the 
leaders.  Satire,  fiction,  poetry,  indeed  all  forms  of 
literary  effort,  were  employed  to  hold  up  Christianity 
to  contempt.   The  principal  grounds  of  hostility  were: 

1.  The  alleged  contradictions  in  the  Scriptures. 

2.  The  uselessness  of  Christians  to  the  existing  state 
of  society. 

3.  The  philosophical  absurdity  of  the  Christian  sys- 
tem. 

4.  The  claim  of  the  humanity  of  Jesus  at  the  same 
time  with  that  of  divinity. 

5.  The  immorality  of  Christians.  This  charge  was 
based  upon  the  secret  meetings  of  Christians.  It  was 
never  seriously  believed.  On  the  contrary,  the  moral 
life  of  believers  stood  out  in  beautiful  contrast  to  the 
pagan  immorality.  That  secrecy  should  be  confounded 
with  bad  morals  was  natural  to  the  pagan  mind,  famil- 
iar with  the  nameless  licentiousness  and  wild  commu- 


38  SHORT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

nism  connected  with  the  Eleusinian  and  other  mysteries. 
This  and  all  the  other  charges  were  summed  up  by 
Tertullian  in  a  single  sentence,  which  he  placed  in  the 
mouth  of  universal  paganism,  as  its  final  argument 
against  the  Christians:  "You  have  no  right  to  exist !" 
6.  The  Outcome  of  the  Attack.  The  most  Avhich  the 
pagan  writers  could  hope  from  their  attack  was  to 
prevent  new  accessions  to  the  Church.  They  wrote 
for  the  pagan  mind,  not  with  any  view  to  disturbing 
the  Christian's  faith  in  his  own  religion.  This  they 
were  not  so  foolish  as  to  imagine  possible.  The  Chris- 
tian body  was  too  firmly  knit  to  give  ground  for 
such  a  delusive  expectation.  No  serious  defection  ever 
occurred  because  of  the  pagan  attack.  On  the  contrary, 
the  numbers  steadily  increased.  But  the  main  object 
also  failed  completely.  Paganism  was  in  process  of 
disintegration,  and  while  the  assailants  flattered  them- 
selves that  they  were  achieving  a  literary  success,  the 
result  was  a  total  disappointment.  The  pagan  walls 
were  falling  too  rapidly  to  be  propped  up.  It  was  an 
effort  for  the  impossible. 


Chapter  XL 

THE    CHEISTIAN    DEFENDERS. 

1.  The  Two  Classes.  We  now  come  to  a  brighter 
picture.  The  writing  in  defence  of  Christianity  is 
called  the  apology^  and  the  writer,  an  apologist.  It 
is  from  the  Greek  word  apologia^  which  meant  a  work 
written-for  resistance.  But  the  apologies  of  the  early 
Church  were  more  than  this.  They  were  not  only 
counter-arguments,  but  aggressive  weapons.  It  was  a 
fierce  warfare  upon  the  enemy's  camp,  followed  by  a 
hot  pursuit.  There  were  two  classes  of  apologists,  the 
Greek  and  the  Latin,  according  to  the  territory  which 
they  occupied,  and  the  language  in  which  they  wrote. 
But  there  were  further  differences.  The  Greeks  be- 
longed mostly  to  the  second  century,  and  their  writ- 
ings exhibited  a  profound  intimacy  with  the  Greek 
philosophy.  Some  of  them  had  studied  in  the  Greek 
schools,  and  entered  the  Church  only  in  mature  life. 
They  endeavored  to  prove  that  Christianity  was  the 
blossom  of  all  that  was  valuable  in  every  system. 
They  stood  largely  on  the  defensive.  The  Latins,  on 
the  other  hand,  were  aggressive.  They  lived  mostly 
in  the  third  century,  were  more  argumentative,  wrote 
in  a  clearer  and  more  methodical  style,  and  carried  the 
warfare  into  the  hostile  ranks  with  an  energy  equal  to 
the  Roman  soldier  on  foreign  battle-fields.  Their  per- 
spective of  Christianity  was  that  of  universal  conquest 
and  permanent  dominion. 


40  SHORT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

2.  The  Greeks.  The  principal  Greek  apologists  were 
Aristo,  Quadratus,  Aristides,  Justin,  Melito,  Miltiades, 
Irengeus,  Athenagoras,  Tatian,  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
Hippolytiis,  and  Origen.  Aristo's  dialogue  between 
Papiskos  and  Jason  was  an  attempt  to  prove  the  truth 
of  Christianity  and  the  messiahship  of  Jesus  as  the  ful- 
filment of  the  Old  Testament.  Quadratus  addressed 
an  aj^ology  to  Hadrian  (a.d.  131),  with  a  view  to  stop 
the  persecution  of  the  Christians.  Aristides  proved 
Christianity  the  culmination  of  the  best  systems  in  the 
classic  world,  and  the  one  which  should  supersede  all 
else.  Justin  wrote  two  apologies  (a.d.  136  and  a.d.  162), 
showing  that  the  Christians  were  not  responsible  for 
public  calamities;  that  they  were  true  Roman  citizens; 
that  pagan  philosophy  and  mythology  abound  in  false- 
hood and  contradiction;  and  that  tlie  only  source  of 
truth  is  the  Scriptures.  Athenagoras,  in  his  Embassy 
of  the  Christians,  applied  a  philosophical  method  to 
Christian  defence.  Tatian,  who  died  about  a.d.  1*76, 
wrote  an  Address  to  the  Greeks,  showing  the  ridiculous 
origin  of  the  Greek  religion  and  science.  Clement,  in 
liis  Pedagogue,  and  the  Stromata,  exposed  the  emp- 
tiness of  the  whole  pagan  fabric.  Hippolytus  wrote 
against  the  pagans,  the  Phatonic  philosopliy,  and  the 
Jews.  Origen,  born  a.d.  185,  wrote  eight  books  against 
Celsus,  in  which  he  exposed  the  weakness  of  the  whole 
pagan  structure. 

3.  The  Latins.  Tertullian  stands  at  the  head.  His 
Apologeticus,  written  about  a.d.  200,  is  the  most  brill- 
iant piece  of  apologetic  writing  in  the  early  Church. 
He  showed  that  persecution  was  no  final  damage  to  the 
Christians.  His  other  writings  covered  nearly  every 
contested  point.  The  supernatural  element  in  Chris- 
tianity was  brought  by  him  into  great  prominence,  and 


THE    CHEISTIAN   DEFENDERS.  41 

defended  with  masterly  skill.  Cyprian  wrote  about  the 
middle  of  the  third  century.  His  attack  on  pagan  idol- 
atry was  merciless,  and  could  not  be  answered.  Arno- 
bius  (a.d.  297)  surpassed  all  the  apologists  in  his  use 
of  the  miracles  of  Jesus,  as  a  weapon  of  Christian 
attack.  Lactantius,  the  Christian  Cicero,  wrote  his 
Divine  Institutions  a.d.  320.  His  strength  lay  less  in 
the  force  of  his  argument  than  in  the  purity  and  beauty 
of  his  style. 

4.  The  Line  of  Defence.  The  objection  that  Chris- 
tians were  disloyal  to  the  state  was  met  by  the  answer 
that  they  were  true  to  the  emperor;  obeyed  all  laws 
which  did  not  interfere  with  Christianity;  never  con- 
spired against  the  government;  and  never  produced 
robbers,  assassins,  or  traitors.  Purity  of  life  was 
proven  as  the  outgrowth  of  pure  doctrines.  Tertullian 
said:  "We  live  a  life  free  from  reproach.  We  live 
among  you.  You  can  see  us  every  day."  To  the  charge 
that  national  calamities  were  produced  by  the  Chris- 
tians, he  replied:  "Why  do  you  suffer  too?  Why  do 
your  gods  let  you  have  these  trials?"  The  inspiration 
of  the  Scriptures  and  purity  of  doctrine  were  funda- 
mental arguments  in  all  the  apologetic  writings.  To 
these  came  the  divine  character  of  Jesus.  When  the 
assailants  repelled  the  miraculous  power  of  Jesus,  the 
apologists  replied:  "Do  you  not  say  that  your  ^scu- 
lapius  restores  the  lame  and  the  halt;  that  your  Or- 
pheus, Zeno,  and  Kleanthes  knew  the  Logos;  and  that 
Plato,  in  a  letter  to  Hermeas  and  Koriskus,  speaks  of 
a  son  of  God  ?"  The  purity  of  Christian  morals  was 
held  up  by  the  apologists  in  striking  antagonism  to 
the  sensuality  of  paganism,  which  could  produce  only 
caricatures  of  good  morals.  The  origin  of  the  pagan 
gods  was  exposed  with  fearless  skill.     The  apologists 


42  SHORT   HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

said,  with  Tatian,  "What  has  become  of  your  Juno, 
that  she  produces  no  more  gods?"  Arnobius  said, 
defiantly:  "Your  gods  abound  in  passion;  some  are 
drunkards,  others  are  murderers,  and  multitudes  are 
licentious." 

5.  The  Triumph  of  the  Apologists.  When  this  battle 
of  three  centuries  was  over  it  was  easy  to  see  that  the 
victory  of  the  Christian  writers  was  complete.  It  began 
with  the  pagan  expectation  of  destroying  the  logical 
basis  of  Christianity,  but  ended  by  the  exposure  of  the 
corruption  of  the  Greek  and  Koman  faith  and  the  weak- 
ness of  the  boasted  philosophy.  Every  department  of 
Christian  truth  was  defended  by  the  apologists.  Their 
arguments  broke  down  the  opposition,  while  they  con- 
stitute a  storehouse  of  Christian  defence  to  which  all 
later  Christian  writers  have  appealed  with  success.  The 
indirect  service  of  the  attacks  to  the  Church  was  great, 
in  that  all  Christians  w^ere  compelled  to  study  the 
groundwork  of  Christianity,  on  every  side.  The  laity 
were  driven  to  read  their  Bible.  The  private  member, 
over  all  Christendom,  could  give  a  reason  for  the  faith 
that  was  in  him.  By  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  the 
conflict  was  over.  The  apologists  were  the  last  to  leave 
the  field.  The  Christian  now  lived  in  a  larger  place. 
He  was  marching  on  to  universal  conquest.  The  words 
of  one  of  the  apologists  expressed  the  attitude  of  all 
believers:  "Every  country  is  the  Christian's  fatherland, 
and  every  fatherland  is  the  Christian's  country." 


Chapter  XII. 

THE    CHRISTIAN    SCHOOLS. 

1.  Early  Attention  to  Christian  Culture.  From  what- 
ever side  the  Christian  convert  came  he  brought  with 
him  the  love  of  the  school.  For  ministerial  training 
the  Jews  had,  from  distant  times,  the  prophetic  schools, 
under  the  care  of  their  wisest  teachers.  In  Athens, 
Tarsus,  and  Alexandria  the  Greeks  possessed  celebrated 
universities,  which  even  Roman  students  attended,  for 
the  completion  of  studies  pursued  in  Italy.  The  proper 
dealing  with  both  Jewish  and  pagan  thought  made  a 
thorough  ministerial  culture  necessary.  The  preacher 
of  the  early  Church  lived  in  an  atmosphere  of  opposi- 
tion, and,  to  succeed,  lie  must  be  Avell  acquainted  with 
not  only  the  truth  he  would  defend,  but  with  the  false 
system  he  would  combat. 

2.  The  Elements  in  Paul's  Day.  The  whole  tendency 
of  Paul's  character,  career,  and  acquisitions  was  on  the 
side  of  careful  training.  Timothy  and  Titus  repre- 
sented a  group  of  young  men  who  were  inducted  into 
Christianity  through  the  labors  of  that  apostle,  and,  by 
personal  attendance  on  his  journeys,  were  prepared  to 
succeed  him  and  the  other  apostles.  It  was  a  beautiful 
legend  of  the  whole  period  that  the  aged  John  stood 
at  the  head  of  a  theological  school  in  Ephesus,  whither 
young  men  flocked  from  all  quarters  to  gather  from 
him  memo7'aJ)iUa  of  our  Lord's  ministry  and  person- 
ality. 

3.  The  Alexandrian  School.     By  the  middle  of  the 


44  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    THE     EARLY    CHURCH. 

second  century  there  were  three  great  Christian 
schools.  The  most  important  was  that  of  Alexandria. 
This  city  was  the  chief  seat  of  philosophical  culture  in 
the  world  after  the  destruction  of  the  literary  prestige 
of  Athens.  All  currents  of  thought,  from  both  East 
and  West,  flowed  thither  for  two  centuries.  Plato, 
because  of  the  sway  of  Neo-Platonism,  was  a  familiar 
name.  Here  Christianity  and  pagan  learning  came  into 
close  conflict,  and  finally  the  Christian  school  took  the 
place  of  the  pagan  university.  The  catechetical,  or 
Socratic,  element  prevailed  at  first.  The  most  active 
period  of  this  school  covered  two  centuries,  a.d.  200- 
400.  Pantsenus  was  the  founder.  He  and  Clement 
stood  at  its  head  in  the  second  century;  Origen,  Her- 
acles, and  Dionysius,  in  the  third;  and  Didymus  the 
Blind,  in  the  fourth.  In  addition  to  these  we  may 
reckon  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  Petrus,  Pamphilus,  and 
Eusebius,  who,  though  not  formally  connected  with  it, 
yet  sympathized  with  its  tendencies.  The  theological 
characteristics  were  sympathy  with  the  better  Greek 
philosophy,  an  emphasis  on  intuition  and  the  subjective 
life,  and  a  disposition  to  allegorize  the  Old-Testament 
narratives.  Origen,  though  brilliant,  was  an  unsafe 
guide,  especially  in  his  adoption  of  an  eternal  creation, 
the  soul's  pre-existence,  a  pre-adamite  apostasy,  and  a 
final  universal  restoration. 

4.  The  School  of  Asia  Minor  consisted  less  in  a  formal 
educational  centre  than  in  a  group  of  theological  writ- 
ers and  teachers.  The  whole  region  had  been  a  scene 
of  active  theological  thought  since  Paul's  day.  In  the 
second  century  it  leaned  towards  a  literal  and  Judaistic 
type  of  Christianity,  but  in  the  third  it  assumed  a  broad- 
er character.  It  opposed  Gnosticism  and  suppressed 
Montanism.     Polycarp,  Papias,  Melito  of  Sardis,  and 


THE   CHRISTIAN   SCHOOLS.  45 

Hegeslppus  were  its  leaders  in  its  first  period;  and  Ire- 
nseus,  Hippolytiis,  and  Julius  Africanus,  in  the  second. 
6.  The  School  of  Antioch,  in  Syria.  Its  chief  pursuit 
was  the  criticism  of  the  sacred  text  and  the  statement 
of  doctrinal  theology.  Its  founders  were  Dorotheus 
and  Lukianus.  At  first  it  sympathized  with  the  Alex- 
andrian school,  but  was  alienated  on  the  rise  of  the 
Origenistic  and  ISTestorian  controversies.  Its  most  pros- 
perous period  was  a.d.  300-342.  Theodorus,  Eusebius 
of  Emesa,  Cyril,  Apollinaris,  Ephraera,  Diodorus,  John 
Chrysostom,  and  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  belonged  to  it. 

6.  The  School  of  North  Africa.  Its  centre  was  Car- 
thage. To  this  place,  and  not  to  Rome,  Latin  Chris- 
tianity was  indebted  for  its  prevailing  type.  Cyprian, 
Tertullian,  Minutius  Felix,  Commodianus,  and  Arno- 
bius  were  its  leading  representatives.  It  was  distin- 
guished for  its  heroic  zeal  for  the  unity  of  the  Church, 
for  aversion  to  Gnosticism,  for  an  exact  and  literal  Bib- 
lical interpretation,  for  an  abhorrence  of  theological 
speculation,  and  for  energy  in  developing  the  practi- 
cal and  evangelistic  side  of  the  Church.  Its  period  of 
greatest  prosperity  was  a.d.  200-330, 

7.  The  General  Tendency  of  the  Schools  was  to  lead 
the  Church  in  its  doctrinal  and  general  literary  develop- 
ment. They  were  rallying-points  for  Christian  de- 
fence, and  for  broader  plans  of  Christian  work.  Their 
influence  extended  throughout  the  Christian  world. 
Many  men  were  drawn  towards  them  from  the  most 
distant  regions,  imbibed  their  spirit,  and  either  went 
back  as  preachers  and  teachers  into  their  own  country, 
or  far  away,  into  new  regions,  to  extend  Christianity. 
Some  of  the  teachers,  as  Origen,  were  of  wonderfully 
magnetic  spirit,  and  imparted  both  their  energy  and 
doctrines  to  younger  minds. 


Chapter  XIII. 

LIBERATION    UNDER    CONSTANTINE. 

1.  Political  Life  and  the  Church.  We  now  come  to 
consider  the  outward  relations  of  the  Church.  What 
was  the  bearing  of  the  empire  upon  Christianity?  The 
period  of  persecution  was  passing  away.  The  Church, 
meanwhile,  was  not  despondent,  but  making  full  plans 
for  future  triumph.  A  revolution  in  the  im.perial  pol- 
icy was  close  at  hand,  and  the  forces  were  in  full  play 
which  should  soon  bring  about  the  liberation  of  all 
Christendom.  This  was  effected  by  the  military  suc- 
cesses of  Constantine,  who,  a.d.  306,  was  called  from 
the  command  of  the  army  in  Britain  to  succeed  his 
father  as  Roman  emperor.  But,  before  getting  se- 
curely in  place,  he  had  to  conquer  five  competitors — 
three  in  the  East  and  two  in  the  West.  It  mattered 
not  that  some  were  blood  relatives.  Kinship  was  only 
a  trifle  in  those  days,  and  soon  Constantine  had  made 
way  with  all  contestants  to  his  claim  to  his  father's 
crown. 

2.  CJonstantine  declared  himself  a  Christian,  in  sym- 
pathy, early  in  his  reign.  Before  the  decisive  battle 
of  the  Rubra  Saxa  with  Maxentius,  which  should  secure 
his  rule,  he  claimed  to  see  in  the  sky  the  sign  of  the 
Cross,  with  the  words  ^^ En  touto  nika^'' — '*By  this  con- 
quer." He  accepted  the  token  as  an  argument  in  favor 
of  Christianity,  gained  the  battle  for  the  crown  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  and  henceforth  avowed  his  belief  in 


LIBERATION   UNDER   CONSTANTINE. 


47 


Gbristianity.  His  vision,  though  in  the  line  of  his 
sympathies,  was  probably  only  a  shrewd  method  to 
attract  the  Christians  to  his  support. 
He  carried  the  labarum,  a  standard  in- 
scribed with  the  cross,  in  all  his  subse- 
quent wars.  His  policy  was  at  first  to 
make  all  Christians  the  supporters  of 
his  rule,  and,  by  granting  concessions, 
to  heal  the  alienation  from  the  empire 
which  the  repressive  policy  of  his  prede- 
cessors had  produced.  He  published 
(a.d.  313)  an  edict  tolerating  Chris- 
tianity as  one  of  the  legal  religions  of 
the  empire.  But  in  the  year  323  he 
enlarged  the  scope  of  his  favor,  and 
made  Christianity  the  established  faith 
of  all  his  dominions. 

3.  The  good  and  the  bad  in  the  impe- 
rial support.  It  was  a  happy  day  when 
the  Christians  could  walk  abroad  with- 
out fear  of  persecution.  But  there  were 
grounds  for  concern.  Constantino  left  but  little  for 
the  Church  to  do  for  its  own  government.  He  claimed 
the  right  to  supervise  religion,  as  the  emperor  had  al- 
ways done  in  the  case  of  paganism.  He  accounted  him- 
self still  the  great  high-priest,  or  Pontifex  Maximus, 
and  claimed  the  prerogative  to  compose  differences, 
decide  questions  of  religious  policy,  call  ecclesiastical 
councils,  and  appoint  the  leading  officers.  Then,  again, 
he  retained  many  pagan  institutions.  The  heathen 
temples  were  supported  out  of  the  state  treasury,  cer- 
tain respect  was  paid  to  the  national  divinities,  and 
even  soothsayers  were  still  used  for  help  in  battle, 
Constantino  was  a  mixed  character,  not  willinor  to  lose 


THE    LABARUM. 


48  SHORT    HISTORY   OF   THE    EARLY   CHURCH. 

the  sympathy  of  the  pagan  citizens,  and  yet  clear- 
headed enough  to  see  that  further  hostility  to  Chris- 
tianity would  be  fatal  to  his  rule.  He  had  no  faith  in 
paganism,  but  would  not  suppress  it.  Plis  line  of  con- 
duct was,  to  allow  it  to  go  on  as  he  found  it,  and  j'et 
to  help  the  Christians  to  conquer  it.  He  was,  of  all 
successful  rulers,  the  most  successful  trimmer. 

4.  The  Danger  to  the  Church.  The  course  of  Constan- 
tme  was  attended  with  serious  danger  to  the  Church. 
This  did  not  arise  from  the  assumption  of  guardianship 
over  its  affairs,  but  from  making  the  whole  Christian 
body  a  part  of  the  machinery  of  the  state,  and  employ- 
ing the  state  as  the  supreme  judge  of  its  inner  and 
outward  life.  Hitherto  the  Church  had  been  a  grand 
moral  unity,  held  together  by  ties  of  love  and  doctrine. 
But  now  it  was  absorbed  by  the  state.  Its  framework 
was  lost  in  the  body  politic.  Freeman  says:  "The 
Church  conquered  the  state."  This  is  a  great  error. 
Constantine's  adoption  of  Christianity  as  the  state  re- 
ligion was  the  conquest  of  the  Church  by  the  state. 
All  the  moral  forces  of  the  Church  were  now  impaired. 
The  bondage  of  the  Church  to  the  state,  thus  early  be- 
gun, produced  the  great  evils  of  the  following  twelve 
centuries — superstition,  the  purchase  of  office,  the  an- 
gry controversy  about  theological  trifles,  the  moral 
corruption  of  the  clergy,  and  the  ignorance  of  the 
masses.  Milton,  in  his  translation  of  a  passage  of 
Dante's  "  Inferno,"  thus  characterizes  the  evil  of  Con- 
stantine's favor : 

"  Ah,  Constantinc,  of  how  much  ill  was  cause, 
^ot  thy  conversion,  but  those  rich  demains 
That  the  first  wealthy  Pope  received  of  thee  !" 

Charlemagne,  and  not  Constantine,  was  the  first  to 
confer  temporal  power  on  the  papacy.     Dante  was  not 


LIBEEATION    UNDER   CONSTANTINE. 


49 


far  astray,  however,  for  Constantine's  patronage  was  the 
entering  wedge  for  Charlemagne's  donation.  Neander 
says  with  truth:  "The  reign  of  Constantine  bears  wit- 
ness that  the  state  which  seeks  to  establish  Christianity 
by  the  w^orldly  means  at  its  command,  may  be  the  occa- 
sion of  more  injury  to  this  holy  cause  than  the  earthly 
power  which  opposes  it,  with  whatever  force."  Con- 
stantine could  have  helped  the  Church  greatly  by  sim- 
ply removing  all  political  disabilities,  and  permitting 
the  Christians  to  develop  their  polity  and  spiritual 
forces  as  God  might  lead. 

5.  Direct  Favors  to  the  Church.  Among  the  chief  spe- 
cial acts  of  Constantine  in  favor  of  the  Church  may  be 
mentioned,  his  ordering  the  civil  observance  of  Sunday, 
his  confiscation  in  the  East  of  pagan  temples  for  Chris- 
tian churches,  his  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  his  ex- 
emption of  the  clergy  from  military  and  municipal 
duty,  and  his  ardent  promotion  of  Christian  education 
among  his  subjects. 


ST.  SOPHIA,  AT  CONSTANTINOPLE. 

4 


Chapter  XIV. 

REACTION  UNDER   JULIAN. 

1.  The  Three  Sons  of  Constantine  divided  their  father's 
empii*e  among  themselves.  Not  one  was  his  equal,  on 
the  battle-field  or  in  government.  But  they  pursued 
his  policy  of  favoring  the  Cliristian  religion.  The 
Christians  were  uncertain  as  to  what  would  be  the 
result  when  his  immediate  family  should  have  passed 
away.  The  outlook  was  far  from  flattering.  When 
Julian  came  to  the  throne  there  were  grave  apprehen- 
sions that  he  would  renew  the  old  war  upon  the  Chris- 
tians. For  a  time  he  was  silent,  but  after  a  while  he 
exhibited  a  spirit  of  refined  opposition  to  all  Christian 
institutions  and  doctrines. 

2.  Julian's  Antecedents  were  calculated  to  prejudice 
his  mind  against  Christianity.  He  was  a  nephew  of 
Constantine,  and  was  practically  imprisoned  in  Cappa- 
docia,  because  of  supposed  danger  to  the  rule  of  Con- 
stantine's  sons.  He  Avas  educated  in  the  languages  and 
sciences,  under  the  oversight  of  the  Arian  bishop,  Eu- 
sebius,  and  was  prepared  for  clerical  service  as  a  lector. 
But  he  regarded  himself  a  victim  of  Christian  persecu- 
tion. In  time  he  acquired  liberty,  by  his  brother  Gal- 
lus  becoming  emperor  in  the  East.  He  visited  Constan- 
tinople, became  acquainted  with  the  pagan  pliilosophy, 
and  studied  and  adopted  divination.  On  the  death  of 
Gallus  (a.d.  354),  ho  was  carried  a  prisoner  to  Milan. 
On  his  release  he  went  to  Athens,  and  was  initiated 
into  the  mysteries  of  Eleusis. 


REACTION   UNDER  JULIAN.  51 

3.  The  Rei^  of  Julian  began  a.d.  355.  At  first  he 
shared  the  empire  with  Constantius,  but  on  the  latter's 
death  he  was  declared  by  his  soldiers  the  supreme  ruler 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  on  the  bank  of  the  Seine,  where 
the  Hotel  Clugny,  the  heart  of  old  Paris,  now  stands. 
He  early  developed  great  military  skill,  and  Avas  suc- 
cessful in  war.  He  here  disappointed  every  one,  for 
he  had  been  supposed  to  be  only  a  recluse,  and  a  man 
of  books.  He  regarded  Constantino's  family  as  fair 
Christian  representatives,  and  hence  he  rejected  Chris- 
tianity, and  revolutionized  the  imperial  policy.  He  took 
up  his  abode  in  Constantinople,  and  adopted  immediate 
measures  to  convert  it  into  a  pagan  city.  His  one  great 
object  was  to  suppress  Christianity,  and  restore  pagan- 
ism to  its  old  grandeur,  but  with  such  improvements 
as  might  be  derived  from  Oriental  or  any  sources.  He 
issued  no  formal  edict  against  Christianity,  but  raised 
barriers  on  every  hand.  He  claimed  that  his  philoso- 
phy taught  him  toleration  of  all  faiths.  But  this  was 
a  thin  disguise.  He  was  bitter  towards  the  religion  of 
Christ. 

4.  Julian's  Opposition.  The  principal  measures  by 
which  Julian  sought  to  suppress  Christianity  were : 
1,  His  encouragement  of  schism  and  strife  among  Chris- 
tians ;  2,  the  prohibition  of  Christian  schools  of  learn- 
ing and  the  study  of  classic  authors  by  Christians,  in 
the  belief  that  Christianity  could  not  exist  without  the 
classic  basis ;  3,  his  removal  of  disabilities  from  the 
Jews,  and  his  proposed,  but  abortive,  restoration  of 
the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  that  he  might  prove  the  fal- 
sity of  Christ's  prediction  (Matt,  xxiii.  38  ;  xxiv.  2) ; 
4,  his  requirement  that  the  soldiers  should  attend  hea- 
then worship ;  5,  his  withdrawal  of  existing  immuni- 
ties from  the  clergy ;  6,  his  failure  to  punish  his  hea- 


62  SHOKT'   HISTORY   OF  THE    EARLY   CHURCH. 

then  subjects  for  deeds  of  violence  against  Christians  ; 
7,  his  punishment  of  Christians  for  the  slig^htest  of- 
fences; his  support  of  pagan  services;  and  the  re- 
building of  the  ternples,  at  public  expense  ;  and,  8,  his 
authorship  of  a  work,  now  lost,  in  defence  of  pagan- 
ism. 

6.  Death  and  Character.  Julian's  reign  was  short, 
lasting  only  twenty  months.  He  died  while  on  a  cam- 
paign against  the  Pei*sians  (a.o.  363).  It  was  currently 
believed  by  the  Christians  that  his  last  words  were  : 
"  Tandem  vicisti,  Galikea  *' — "  Thou,  O  Galilean,  hast 
conquered,  after  all."  He  was  a  compound  of  elements 
not  often  found  in  one  individual.  He  was  fanatical  in 
treatment  of  the  Christians,  shrewd  in  political  plans, 
brilliant  as  a  military  commander,  cultivated  in  all  the 
learning  of  his  age,  vain  in  the  extreme,  and  wildly  su- 
perstitious. He  not  only  believed  that  Christianity  was 
sure  to  die,  but  that  he  was  the  destined  instrument 
to  kill  it.  He  had  the  egotism  to  believe  that  he  ex- 
celled in  literary  work,  an  infirmity  for  which  royal 
authors  have  generally  been  distinguished.  Like  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  he  was  never  so  weak  as  with  pen  in 
hand.  His  proposed  new  eclectic  religion  was  hetero- 
geneous beyond  description.  It  Avas  a  mixture  of  Neo- 
Platonic  speculation,  the  arts  of  jugglery,  the  moraliz- 
insrs  of  Rome's  best  Stoic  thinkers,  and  the  wild  dreams 
of  Persian  fire- worshippers.  Here  and  there  a  grain  of 
the  golden  truth  of  the  Bible  was  dropped  in,  but  not 
enough  to  cover  the  glaring  shallowness  of  the  general 
scheme.  His  god  was  the  Mithra,  or  Sun-God  of  the 
East,  beneath  whom  were  numerous  tutelary  divinities, 
derived  from  Grecian  paganism  and  Alexandrian  gnos- 
ticism. His  methods  of  rehabilitating  paganism  were 
on  the  Christian  plan.     He  re-established  tho  priest- 


REACTION  UNDER  JULIAN.  53 

bood  on  the  basis  of  the  Christian  ministry;  his  pagan 
bishops  preached  to  the  people,  and  expounded  the  pa- 
gan mythologies ;  he  foisted  into  pagan  use  the  con- 
stitution of  the  Church ;  provided  for  penance,  ex- 
communication, absohition,  and  restoration;  twisted- 
Christian  psalmody  into  the  heathen  rites,  whei*©  choirs 
chanted  and  congregations  responded,  after  the  most 
approved  ecclesiastical  mode;  and  provided  hospitals 
for  the  sick,  destitute,  and  orphans,  and  gave  alms  after 
the  manner  of  the  Christian  diaconate.  But  all  failed. 
Even  an  emperor  could  not  mix  Christianity  and  pagan- 
ism. He  was  the  last  ruler  on  the  Roman  throne  who 
was  hostile  to  Christianity.  He  passed  into  history  as 
Julian  the  Apostate,  The  epithet  is  probably  a  mis- 
application, as  it  is  not  likely  that  Julian  was  ever  any- 
thing else  than  an  enemy  to  Christianity. 


Chapter  XV. 
the  montanistic  reform. 

1.  Reaction  against  Loose  Discipline.  During  the 
persecutions  of  the  lirst  three  centuries  some  of  the 
Christians  relapsed  into  paganism.  A  portion  of  these 
afterwards  regretted  their  apostasy,  and  wished  to 
return  to  the  Church,  and  be  received  as  penitents. 
Within  the  Church  there  prevailed  two  sentiments  con- 
cerning them — a  lax  view, which  exacted  but  little  more 
of  the  penitent  than  a  pledge  of  future  fidelity ;  and  a 
severe  view, which  kept  the  applicant  for  readmission  on 
a  long  probation,  and,  in  many  instances,  would  not  re- 
ceive him  at  all.  These  two  views,  however,  took  a 
wider  range  than  the  readmission  of  the  lapsed  into  the 
Church.  The  imperial  favor  was  already  bringing  in 
disorders  of  many  kinds.  Many  Christians,  both  East 
and  West,  protested  against  them,  while  the  more 
wealthy  saw  no  real  danger  to  vital  Christianity  by 
making  certain  social  concessions.  The  former  and 
stricter  class  found  expression  in  the  life  and  career  of 
Montanus,  a  native  Phrygian. 

2.  The  Plan  of  Montanism.  Montanus,  like  the  people 
among  whom  he  was  reared,  was  fond  of  the  marvel- 
lous and  ecstatic.  The  old  national  worship  was  that 
of  Cybele,  who  was  here  honored  as  nowhere  else. 
Divination  and  clairvoyance  were  believed  to  be  priest- 
ly endowments.  Political  disaster  only  fanned  the 
llame  of  devotion   to  Cybele.     In  time,  Christianity 


THE    MONTANISTIC    REFORM.  55 

made  its  way  among  tlie  i:)eople,  and  here  grew  up 
some  of  those  churches  of  Asia,  such  as  Laodicea  and 
Colosse,  to  which  John  addressed  epistles.  But  the 
natural  temperament  remained  undisturbed,  and  the 
people  carried  into  Christianity  the  same  fimi  fidelity 
to  their  new  faith  which  they  had  entertained  towards 
paganism.  The  followers  of  Montanus  demanded  a 
return  to  the  apostolical  life  of  the  Church.  He  had 
been  a  priest  of  Cybele,  and,  when  he  became  a  Chris- 
tian, he  was  as  warm  for  his  new  faith  as  he  had  been 
for  his  old  one.  There  was  not  a  trace  of  idolatry 
left  in  him  ;  but  his  nature  was  quite  the  same.  He 
remained  the  visionary  and  the  prophet.  He  proposed 
to  regenerate  the  life  of  all  Christendom.  He  saw  de- 
partures from  the  old  simplicity  and  purity,  which  he  re- 
garded himself  as  the  chosen  instrument  for  removing. 
His  place,  therefore,  was  that  of  the  reformer.  It  was 
an  obscure  region  to  produce  a  man  of  such  superior 
claims.  But  he  stood  out  before  the  whole  Christian 
Avorld  as  the  representative  of  the  old  and  pure  faith. 

3.  The  Opinions  of  Montanus.  He  combined  the 
practical  and  visionary  to  a  remarkable  degree.  He 
claimed  that  there  are  three  persons  in  the  Godhead: 
Father,  Son,  and  Spirit,  and  that  through  himself  the 
third  person,  the  Paraclete,  prophesied  to  the  world. 
The  world  will  speedily  end,  and  then  the  millennial 
reign  of  Christ  will  begin.  The  real  Church  is  the 
pure  Church.  Nothing  but  absolute  purity  must  be 
allowed  in  it.  There  is  a  universal  priesthood  of 
believers.  Penitence  must  take  place  after  sin,  but 
sacrificing  again  to  idols  should  exclude  from  total 
restoration  to  the  Church.     But  God  may  still  forgive. 

4.  The  Expansion  of  Montanism  went  rapidly  on. 
Communities  sprang  up,  not  in  Phrygia  alone,  but  in 


60  SHORT   HISTORY    OF   THE   EARLY    CHURCH. 

many  other  regions.  They  were  small  societies  in  the 
general  Church — ecclesiolm  in  ecclesia — like  the  Pietis- 
tic  organizations  within  the  bosom  of  the  German  Prot- 
estant Cliurch,  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The  bishop, 
Julianus,  tried  to  win  them  back,  but,  failing,  adopted 
severer  methods.  Two  councils  were  held,  at  both  of 
which  the  Montanists  were  condemned. 

Rome  favored  their  cause  at  first,  but  afterwards 
settled  down  into  a  sentiment  of  firm  opposition.  The 
looser  discipline  of  the  Western  Christians  was  not  likely 
to  harmonize  with  it.  But  in  Gaul  there  was  a  close 
sympathy,  where  the  bonds  between  the  Christians 
and  those  of  Asia  Minor  had  always  been  very  close. 
In  North  Africa  the  views  of  Montanus  gained  new 
favor  and  great  prestige,  through  the  support  of  Ter- 
tullian.  He  advocated  the  universal  necessity  of  a 
stricter  discipline,  and  eliminated  some  of  the  vagaries 
of  original  Montanism.  His  name  gave  it  new  respec- 
tability ;  but,  with  even  this  great  advantage,  the  sys- 
tem was  doomed.  The  condemnation  by  the  councils ; 
the  visionary  speculations  of  Montanus  ;  and  the  promi- 
nence of  ecstasy,  vision,  and  chiliasm  in  the  movement, 
were  as  millstones  about  its  neck.  Its  stronger  quali- 
ties were  overlooked  in  the  vigorous  warfare  upon  it. 
The  episcopacy  found  it  an  inconvenient  thing,  as  its 
tendency  was  to  curtail  the  episcopal  prerogative. 
Montanism  was  bitterly  opposed  to  all  centralization 
of  authority.  The  Roman  emperors  opposed  it  every- 
where. At  last  it  disappeared,  even  in  Phrygia,  and 
was  found  only  in  a  sect  in  North  Africa,  bearing  the 
name  Tertullianists.  Justinian  issued  two  edicts  against 
Montanism,  a.d.  530-532,  after  v/hich  it  sank  beneath 
the  waves  of  more  exciting  questions. 


Chapter  XVI. 

CONTROVERSIES    ON    CHRIST. 

1.  The  Arian  Strife.  The  principal  scene  of  this  im- 
portant controversy  was  Alexandria,  Palestine,  and 
Constantinople.  The  question  v/as  concerning  the  di- 
vinity of  Christ.  Both  Jews  and  pagans  very  early 
united  in  opposing  this  doctrine,  believing  that  it  was 
vital  to  the  Christians.  John's  gospel,  the  inspired 
apology,  proves  how  early  our  Lord's  divine  character 
was  assailed.  Later,  there  came,  as  accessories  towards 
a  low  Christological  view,  the  vague  teachings  of  the 
Antiochian  school  and  the  incongruities  of  the  theology 
of  Origen.  The  period  during  which  the  controversy 
lasted  is  divided  into  two  parts  —  a.d.  318-361  and 
361-381.  Arius  was  a  presbyter  of  Alexandria.  He 
derived  his  theological  ideas  from  the  Antiochian 
school,  which  emphasized  the  unity  of  the  divine  nat- 
ure, and  looked  with  great  alarm  on  any  doctrine  which 
would  seem  to  destroy  it. 

2.  The  Outbreak  in  Alexandria  took  place  a.d.  318. 
Alexander,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  advocated  the  eternal 
Sonship  of  Christ,  and  his  equality  with  the  Father. 
Arius  opposed  him,  holding  that  there  was  a  time 
when  the  Son  did  not  exist;  that,  having  a  beginning, 
he  can  not  be  of  the  same  essence  with  the  Father; 
that  he  was  a  creature,  and  not  Creator;  that  he  was 
divinely  illumined,  and  therefore  the  Logos;  that  he  is 
subordinate  to  the  Father,  and  that  the  Holy  Ghost  is 


68  SHORT   HISTORY    OF   THE   EARLY   CHURCH. 

subordinate  to  the  Son.  The  issue  was  clearly  defined. 
For  a  time  Alexandria  was  the  sole  scene  of  the  con- 
troversy, and  the  participants  were  the  bishop  and  his 
presbyter.  Alexander  called  a  synod  in  Alexandria, 
when  Arius  was  deposed.  But  violent  opposition  arose 
to  this  summary  dealing  with  a  man  of  the  pure  life  of 
Arius.  The  scene  now  widened.  Constantine,  the  em- 
peror, ordered  the  contestants  to  stop  the  quarrel. 
But  no  attention  was  paid  to  the  command.  The  strife 
raged  with  increased  bitterness.  When  the  emperor 
was  informed  by  Hosius,  bishop  of  Cordova,  whom  he 
had  sent  as  a  special  messenger  to  Alexandria,  to  in- 
quire into  the  state  of  affairs,  that  the  controversy  was 
no  trifling  matter,  and  would  not  cease  at  a  mere  order, 
he  convened  a  council. 

3.  The  Council  of  Nicsea,  A.D.  325.  This  was  the 
most  important  assembly  of  the  early  Church.  It  was 
attended  by  representatives  from  every  part  of  Chris- 
tendom. Even  India  sent  its  bishop.  There  were 
about  three  hundred  bishops,  besides  many  of  the  in- 
ferior clergy.  Constantine  arrived  during  the  session, 
and  presided  over  the  deliberations.  Athanasius  stood 
at  the  head  of  the  orthodox  party.  The  result  of  the 
council  was  the  condemnation  of  Arius  and  the  passing 
of  the  celebrated  Nicene  creed.  Arius  now  became  an 
exile  in  Illyria.  Constantine,  influenced  by  the  per- 
suasions of  certain  bishops,  but  particularly  by  the  en- 
treaties of  Constantia,  widow  of  the  Emperor  Licinius, 
invited  Arius  to  his  court,  ordered  Athanasius  to  re- 
ceive him  back  into  the  Church,  and  threatened  de- 
position and  banishment  in  case  of  refusal.  Athanasius 
replied,  that  he  could  not  acknowledge  as  Christian 
those  whom  the  whole  Church  had  condemned.  The 
emperor  then  ceased  his  importunities.    But  the  Arians 


CONTKOYERSIES    ON    CHRIST.  59 

made  Coiistantine  believe  that  Atbanasius  was  a  polit- 
ical enemy,  charging  him  with  preventing  the  sailing 
of  the  Egyptian  fleet  with  supplies  for  Constantinople. 
He  was  thereupon  banished  to  Treves,  in  Gaul,  a.d. 
336. 

4.  The  Fortunes  of  Arianism.  The  subsequent  his- 
tory of  Arian  opinions  was  checkered.  Atbanasius 
and  Arius  stood  before  the  Christian  world  as  the 
representatives  of  orthodoxy  and  heterodoxy.  The 
changes  in  imperial  sympathy  were  frequent,  the  Arians 
enjoying  quite  as  much  the  sunshine  of  the  palace  as 
their  orthodox  adversaries.  The  general  council  of 
Sardica,  in  Illyria,  a.d.  343,  renev>^ed  the  conclusions  of 
Nicsea.  But  Arian  opinions  still  gained  ground  in  the 
East,  while  in  the  West  the  opposition  was  only  tacit 
and  negative.  When  Julian  gained  the  throne  he  re- 
called Atbanasius  from  exile,  but  afterwards  banished 
him  again.  That  ruler  was  ready  for  any  measure  by 
which  Christians  could  be  pitted  against  each  other. 
The  council  of  Constantinople,  a.d.  381,  condemned  the 
Arians  once  more,  and  two  years  later  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  issued  an  edict  against  them.  In  the  re- 
moter parts  of  the  empire  they  gained  strength.  Some 
of  the  ruder  tribes  adopted  their  view.  Ulfilas  was  a 
Gothic  bishop  of  Arian  views.  The  celebrated  Codex 
Argenteus,  now  preserved  in  the  University  of  XJpsala, 
Sweden,  was  his  translation  of  the  four  Gospels  into  the 
Mseso-Gothic  language  of  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. The  Vandals  and  Moors  of  North  Africa  became 
Arians,  but  were  conquered,  because  of  a  rebellion  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Justinian.  Gradually  the  heresy  dis- 
appeared alike  from  the  centres  and  the  outlying  prov- 
inces. By  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  the  only  Arian 
people  left  were  the  Lombards,  of  Italy. 


Chapter  XVII. 

THE    LATER    CONTROVERSIES. 

1.  The  New  Issues  were  largely  related  to  the  person 
of  Christ.  The  Arian  strife  turned  entirely  upon  his 
divine  nature,  but  questions  connected  directly  with 
this  doctrine  arose,  which  absorbed  universal  atten- 
tion, and  continued  long  after  the  Arian  controversy 
had  ceased  to  divide  the  Christian  world.  These  new 
issues  related  to  the  person  of  Christ  in  his  incarnate 
existence.  The  singular  characteristic  of  these  collat- 
eral controversies,  which  were  separate  currents  flow- 
ing out  of  the  Arian  fountain,  lies  in  the  fact  that  they 
became  permanent  factors  in  the  Church.  For,  from 
them  have  come  the  present  Coptic  and  Nestorian 
cliurches,  with  some  smaller  subdivisions  of  Oriental 
Christianity. 

2.  Apollinarism.  Apollinaris  believed  that  the  prev- 
alent Christian  view  of  the  two  natures  in  Christ  sa- 
vored of  both  Judaism  and  paganism.  He  held  that 
the  divine  Logos  first  attained  a  personal  existence  in 
the  man  Jesus;  that  full  divinity  and  humanity  in  one 
were  impossible;  that  Christ's  humanity  was  eternally 
complete;  and  that  the  human  is  only  the  organ  for 
revealing  the  divine.  By  ignoring  the  essential  feat- 
ures of  our  Lord's  humanity,  and  involving  it  with  the 
divine  to  such  an  extent  that  it  became  a  mixed  es- 
sence, Apollinaris  subjected  himself  to  the  charge  of 
heresy.     His  opinions  were  condemned  by  the  councils 


THE    LATER    CONTEOVEESIES.  61 

of  Rome,  a.d.  377  and  378;  by  the  council  of  Constan- 
tinople, A.D.  381;  and  by  the  imperial  decrees,  a.d.  388, 
397,  and  428.  ApoUinaris  withdrew  from  the  Church 
in  A.D.  375,  and  died  a.d.  390. 

3.  Nestorianism.  This  controversy  raged  over  a  broad 
territory,  and  excelled. all  othei-s  of  the  time  in  its  vig- 
orous vitality,  and  its  power  to  project  itself  into  the 
later  ages.  It  was  another  product  of  the  restless  and 
inventive  Antioch.  Nestorius  became  bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople, a.d.  428.  He  saw  the  danger  of  Arianism, 
and,  in  his  zeal  to  defend  the  full  divinity  of  our  Lord, 
went  so  far  as  to  do  injustice  to  his  humanity.  He 
went  beyond  ApoUinaris,  and  yet  was  in  a  measure  of 
sympathy  with  the  Pelagians,  because  of  the  total  ab- 
sence of  fatalism  in  their  system  and  the  large  place 
which  they  gave  to  the  freedom  of  the  Avill.  His  opin- 
ions were,  that  Christ  possessed  two  natures,  the  divine 
and  human;  that  there  are  not  two  persons,  however, 
but  only  one;  that  there  is  a  perfect  union  between 
the  perfect  God,  the  Word,  and  man,  which  is  exj^ress- 
ed  by  the  word  sunaplieia  (conjunction) ;  that  the  di- 
vine so  far  transcends  the  human  as  largely  to  absorb  it; 
and  that  God  the  Son  did  not  endure  human  suffering, 
or  go  through  human  experiences.  Instead  of  regard- 
ing Christ  as  the  God-man,  Nestorius  held  that  he  was 
the  God -bearing  man.  The  body  of  our  Lord  was 
simply  the  vehicle  of  the  divine,  the  temple  of  the 
Logos.  These  views  attracted  profound  attention. 
They  were  advocated  with  so  much  warmth  and  abili- 
ty, not  only  by  Nestorius,  but  by  many  who  rallied 
to  his  support,  that  they  spread  with  marvellous  ra- 
pidity, and  extended  from  the  shores  of  the  JEgean  Sea 
to  the  boundaries  of  India.  They  were  condemned  by 
several  councils.     The  Emperor  Zeno  (a.d.  489)  dis- 


02  SIIOKT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH, 

solved  the  ISTestorian  school  of  Edcssa,  and  hoped  in 
this  way  to  arrest  the  heresy.  But  here  lie  failed.  It 
was  a  system  which  could  live  without  a  theology.  The 
Nestorians  can  still  be  found,  even  in  name  as  well  as 
doctrines,  in  Koordistan  and  the  valley  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates.  Humboldt  bears  witness  to  their  con- 
tributions to  the  arts  and  sciences  in  the  East,  while 
their  schools  and  hospitals  have  been  of  benign  influ- 
ence through  all  the  intervening  centuries. 

4.  Augustine,  born  in  Tagaste,  Numidia,  a.d.  354,  was 
led  to  adopt  Christianity  while  young  through  the  ex- 
ample of  his  devout  mother,  Monica.  He  afterwards 
became  worldl}^,  and  wandered  far  from  the  principles 
and  example  of  his  early  life.  When  thirty-two  years 
of  age  he  was  restored  to  a  pure  and  happy  state,  and 
was  baptized  by  the  aged  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan. 
His  mother,  wlio  never  lost  faith  in  him,  and  who  had 
followed  him  in  all  his  wanderings  over  many  lands, 
had  the  great  joy  of  witnessing  his  restoration  to  the 
Church.  He  became  a  presbyter  in  Africa,  a.d.  399, 
was  elected  bishop  of  Hippo  Regius,  in  Numidia,  and 
died  there  a.d.  430.  The  theology  of  Augustine  was 
as  follows:  Man  was  created  pure,  in  God's  image,  and 
possessed  of  a  free  will.  He  was  tempted  and  fell,  and 
in  him  all  humanity  sinned.  But  man  was  capable  of 
restoration,  not  of  himself,  but  of  God's  grace.  This 
grace  comes  not  because  man  believes,  but  precedes 
faith,  and  is  given  that  he  may  believe.  From  this 
grace  all  the  stages  of  repentance,  conversion,  and 
final  perseverance  are  reached  and  passed  through. 
Kow,  as  grace  is  a  free  gift  of  God,  and  precedes  all 
acts  of  faith  on  man's  part,  and  as  experience  shows 
that  not  all  men  become  converted  and  are  saved,  it 
must  follow  that  God  absolutely  predestinates  a  cer- 


THE    LATER    CONTROVERSIES.  63 

tain  number  to  salvation  {decretum  absolutum),  and  that 
tiie  rest  are  left  to  their  merited  damnation.  There 
were  many  departments  of  this  new  system,  and  Au- 
gustine defended  them  all  with  fervor  and  logical  skill. 
His  purity  of  life  and  noble  character  added  great  force 
to  his  theology. 

5.  The  Pelagian  Controversy.  Out  of  the  Augus- 
tinian  theology  sprang  the  Pelagian  controversy.  It 
marked  the  entrance  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  into  the  broad 
domain  of  the  general  theology  of  the  Christian  Church. 
Pelagius  was  a  monk  of  Britain,  who  resided  in  Rome, 
and  about  a.d.  409  began  to  propagate  his  doctrines. 
He  attacked  the  Augustinian  system  on  every  side.  He 
controverted  the  innate  depravity  of  man,  and  held 
that  man  was  created  mortal ;  that  Adam's  fall  has 
made  no  change  in  human  nature,  and  has  exerted  no 
influence  on  his  posterity;  that  the  heart  is  a  tabula 
QXisa,  or  blank,  and  has  no  inclination  to  virtue  or  vice; 
that  man's  will  is  perfectly  free  to  choose  virtue  or 
vice;  that  Christ  became  man,  not  to  save  by  his  aton- 
ing blood,  but  to  aid  us  by  his  doctrine  and  example 
to  attain  to  everlasting  life;  that  baptism  is  a  necessi- 
ty ;  and  that  children  dying  unbaptized  reach  a  lower 
grade  of  salvation  than  the  baptized. 

6.  The  Spread  of  the  Controversy.  Pelagius  succeeded 
while  in  Rome  in  winning  to  his  doctrines  the  acute 
and  learned  Ccelestius.  Both  were  of  pure  life  and 
ascetic  tastes.  They  went  to  Africa,  a.d.  411,  and  af- 
terwards Pelagius  proceeded  to  Palestine,  while  Cceles- 
tius remained  in  Africa,  and  became  a  presbyter.  The 
deacon  Paulinus  opposed  the  Pelagian  system,  and  be- 
came a  strong  aid  to  Augustine.  In  Palestine  it  en- 
countered a  strong  opponent  in  Hieronymus,  but  the 
synod  of  Jerusalem  (a.d.  415)  declined  to  condemn  the 

5 


64  SHORT   HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

doctrines  of  Pelagius,  and  intimated  that  the  wLole 
controversy  was  a  Western  affair,  and  was  of  no  special 
concern  to  Eastern  Christians.  The  African  Church, 
however,  took  np  the  question,  and  the  two  synods  of 
Mileve  and  Carthage  (a.d.  416)  condemned  the  Pela- 
gians. An  appeal  was  made  by  Pelagins  to  the  Ro- 
man bishop,  Innocent  I.,  but  the  latter  died  before  it 
reached  him.  His  successor,  Zosimus,  espoused  the 
Pelagian  cause,  and  Avrote  an  endorsement  to  Africa. 
But  a  new  synod  was  called  in  Carthage  (a.d.  417), 
which  confirmed  the  former  action  against  Pelagius. 
The  Roman  Emperor,  Honorius,  now  took  part  in  the 
strife,  and  banished  the  Pelagians  from  Rome.  This 
brought  Zosimus  to  drop  his  Pelagianism,  and  he 
wrote  a  circular  letter  against  it.  Suddenly  the  scene 
of  controversy  was  shifted  to  the  East,  with  Constan- 
tinople as  the  centre.  The  third  general  council  of 
the  Church  was  held  in  Ephesus,  a.d.  431,  and  Pela- 
gius and  Coelestius  were  condemned,  at  the  same  time 
with  Nestorius.  The  controversy  assumed  a  milder 
type,  later,  in  the  West,  under  the  name  of  semi-Pela- 
gianism.  The  sharpness  of  both  Augustinism  and 
Pelagianism  was  toned  down.  The  result  was  the  tri- 
umph of  a  mild  type  of  the  Augustinian  theology,  adopt- 
ed by  the  synod  of  Aranico  (Orange),  a.d.  529. 

7.  Other  Controversies  grew  out  of  these  larger  ones. 
Each  district  had  its  own  views,  while  individual  com- 
munities were  distinguished  for  their  espousal  of  some 
leader,  which  meant  bitter  hostility  against  his  com- 
petitor. There  was  no  v/ant  of  hair-splitting.  The 
philosophical  terms  of  the  Greek  schools,  which  it  was 
thought  were  dead,  again  came  to  life,  and  were  hurled 
with  energy  from  man  to  man  and  land  to  land. 
"  Theotokos  " — "  God  born  " — a  word  used  by  Nesto- 


THE    LATER   CONTROVERSIES.  65 

rius,  was  heard  from  Gaul  and  Italy  to  the  borders 
of  modern  Thibet  and  India.  All  Christendom  was 
divided  by  a  single  letter  of  the  alphabet,  one  half 
crying  "Homoioiisia"  (like  essence),  and  the  other 
half  responding  with  equal  fervor,  "  Homoousia  "  (same 
essence).  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  bears  the  following 
witness  to  the  extent  to  which  the  theological  discus- 
sions pervaded  all  classes.  "The  city  (Constantinople) 
is  full  of  people,  who  dogmatize  on  incomprehensible 
questions.  The  streets  and  market-places  are  the 
scenes  of  discussions  of  the  old-clothes  dealers,  the 
money  changers,  and  the  venders  of  green-groceries. 
If  you  ask  how  many  oholl  he  asks  for  his  produce,  he 
will  respond  by  dogmatizing  on  the  Begotten  and  the 
Unbegotten.  If  you  inquire  the  price  of  bread,  you 
will  get  for  answer,  *  The  Father  is  greater  than  the 
Son,  and  the  Son  is  subordinate  to  the  Father.'  If 
you  inquire,  'Is  the  bath  ready?'  you  will  hear,  'The 
Son  was  created  from  nothing.'" 

8.  The  Results  of  the  Agitations  were,  on  the  whole, 
favorable  to  Christianity.  At  the  moment  they  must 
have  seemed  not  only  fruitless,  but  of  infinite  damage. 
This  is  always  the  judgment  of  the  age  which  produces 
theological  discussions.  Controversy  seems  only  evil 
when  in  progress.  But,  judged  by  later  generations, 
one  sees  the  good  results.  The  agitations  of  the  apos- 
tolic period,  and  of  the  four  centuries  succeeding  it, 
aroused  the  Christians  to  a  sense  of  the  importance  of 
formulating  their  doctrines.  They  were  led  to  meet 
in  great  councils,  to  compare  views,  and  lay  down  those 
creeds,  one  by  one,  which  have  served  the  purpose  of 
doctrinal  statement  for  all  later  ages.  The  masses  were 
brought  to  examine  the  Scrijitures  with  great  care,  and 
to  see  how  far  the  prevailing  doctrines  were  supported 


66  SHOET    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

by  them.  The  average  Christian  was  led  to  distinguish 
between  truth  and  error,  and  to  perceive  the  vast  dan- 
ger which  came,  in  a  rude  age,  from  propagating  false- 
hood. It  was  a  time  of  test.  The  furnace  was  at  a 
white  heat.  Every  truth  which  lay  at  the  foundation 
of  Christianity  was  subjected  to  the  flames.  The  pa- 
gans from  without  had  attempted,  by  their  attacks, 
to  destroy  Christianity.  But,  in  the  period  of  contro- 
versy, the  Christians  examined  their  whole  body  of 
truth  with  their  own  hands.  They  now  gave  proof 
that  they  could  discuss  together  with  as  much  anima- 
tion as  against  their  common  foe.  The  Council  of 
NiciBa,  A.D.  325,  which  determined  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  and  that  of  Chalcedon,  a.d.  451,  which  deter- 
mined the  union  of  the  two  natures  in  him,  undisturbed 
and  unmixed,  made  immortal  statements.  Hence,  even 
in  the  midst  of  the  controversial  period,  we  can  easily 
see  positive  advances  of  the  cause  of  Christianity. 


Chapter  XVIII. 
ecclesiastical  schisms. 

1.  The  Schism  of  Felicissimiis.  Division  in  the  Church 
was  intimately  connected  with  the  controversies.  But 
the  formal  secessions  did  not  arise  so  much  from  dif- 
ferences of  opinions  in  theological  speculation  as  in 
practical  life.  Felicissimus  was  the  originator  of  an 
important  schism,  which  extended  from  Carthage  to  the 
shores  of  the  Atlantic.  Cyprian,  the  Bishop  of  Car- 
thage, had  dealt  leniently  with  the  lapsed  Avho  sought 
readmission  to  the  Church.  Felicissimus  took  the 
stricter  view,  and  opposed  Cyprian,  first,  on  the  basis 
of  the  alleged  irregular  method  of  the  latter's  election 
to  the  episcopacy,  and  then  because  of  his  mild  meas- 
ures in  restoring  the  lapsed  into  the  favor  of  the 
Church. 

2.  The  Novatian  Schism,  a.d.  251,  was  produced  by 
Novatianus,  with  Rome  as  the  scene.  The  origin  lay 
in  the  corrupt  measures  by  which  Callistus,  after  many 
adventures,  arrived  in  Rome,  and  secured  election  to 
the  episcopacy.  Ho  granted  absolution  to  all  the  ex- 
communicated alike.  He  permitted  a  second  marriage, 
and  even  a  third,  to  his  clergy.  After  his  death  the 
lax  party  continued  in  force.  In  a.d.  251  the  presbyter 
Cornelius  was  chosen  bishop,  and  his  methods  were 
similar  to  those  of  his  predecessor.  Novatianus,  a  pres- 
byter, opposed  him  with  great  spirit.  He  claimed  that 
the  Church  consisted  of  the  pure  only;  that  there  could 


68  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

be  no  chaff  among  the  good  wheat.  An  important  se- 
cession was  the  outcome,  with  Novatianns  as  leader. 
It  extended  into  the  East,  and  in  Phrjgia  received 
strong  support.  It  lost  strength,  however,  w^ith  the 
death  of  its  leader,  and  in  time  went  into  decay. 

3.  The  Donatist  Schism  arose  from  the  same  general 
cause  as  the  other  separatistic  movements.  But  it  in- 
volved more  serious  questions,  assumed  larger  propor- 
tions, continued  longer,  and  made  a  more  thorough 
encroachment  on  the  life  and  organization  of  the  Church 
than  any  previous  schism.  It  began  with  the  question 
of  the  practical  religious  life,  but  soon  extended  into 
the  domain  of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  and  then  entered 
the  larger  sphere  of  the  relation  of  the  Church  to  the 
state.  In  North  Africa  the  spirit  of  martyrdom,  dur- 
ing the  persecutions,  assumed,  in  many  cases,  the  form 
of  a  monomania.  Christians,  in  large  numbers,  thought 
that  by  voluntary  death  they  could  atone  for  all  former 
errors.  Fanaticism  took  the  place  of  a  calm  and  re- 
signed submission  to  the  inevitable.  Then  came  rev- 
erence for  the  bones  of  the  martyrs,  and  for  the  places 
of  their  death.  Many  Christians  thought  they  saw  in 
special  places  and  relics  the  abode  of  sanctity  and  the 
source  of  blessings.  The  question  now  became  of  such 
interest  that  elections  to  the  episcopal  office  turned 
upon  fancies  arising  out  of  this  fanatical  spirit.  Dona- 
tus,  a  Numidian  bishop,  appeared  at  Carthage,  opposed 
the  election  of  Coecilian  as  bishop  on  the  ground  that 
he  had  been  consecrated  by  Felix,  a  traditor,  or  re- 
nouncer  of  the  Scriptures,  in  the  time  of  persecution. 
Donatus  stood  at  the  head  of  the  stricter  party,  and 
would  surrender  nothing  to  tlie  more  lax  Christians. 
The  entire  Church  of  North  Africa  was  involved  in 
the  strife.    From  words  the  difference  went  so  far  as 


ECCLESIASTICAL    SCHISMS.  69 

secession.  A  council  at  Aries,  in  France,  condemned 
the  Donatists.  But  tbey  had  warm  supporters,  and 
bore  persecution  firmly.  In  the  year  321  the  Emperor 
Constantine  issued  a  special  edict,  granting  them  full 
religious  liberty.  For  twenty  years  they  had  peace, 
during  which  time  they  built  churches,  organized  socie- 
ties, built  up  a  vast  ecclesiastical  system,  and  were  rep- 
resented by  their  own  bishop  in  the  Nicene  council. 
After  the  death  of  Donatus  the  sect  divided  into  ex- 
tremists and  moderates.  In  course  of  time  the  schism 
lost  its  hold  upon  the  favor  of  the  people,  and  disap- 
peared. 

4.  The  Meletian  Schism.  During  the  Diocletian  per- 
secution, when  Peter  was  metropolitan  of  Alexandria, 
and  Meletius  was  bishop  of  Lycopolis,  in  the  Thebaid, 
the  latter  took  advantage  of  the  retirement  of  the 
former  to  ordain  ministers  in  dioceses  outside  his  own. 
He  complained  that,  as  many  bishops  were  absent,  the 
Church  was  suifering  from  want  of  their  services.  The 
bishops  who  were  in  captivity  remonstrated  against  his 
course.  Meletius  held  to  the  stricter  view,  and  Epi- 
phanius  reports  that  Meletius  was  the  representative  of 
the  stricter  party  in  the  Church.  An  Egyptian  synod 
took  measures  against  Meletius,  and  condemned  him, 
for  assuming  functions  not  belonging  to  him.  The 
schism  extended  over  all  Egypt,  and  was  not  with- 
out powerful  support  in  other  regions.  Twenty-nine 
Meletian  bishops  were  present  at  the  Council  of  Ni- 
cfea.  But  the  schism  itself  was  condemned,  though 
in  mild  terms.  After  the  council  Meletius  continued 
his  schismatic  course,  but  without  real  success.  He 
afterwards  combined  with  the  Arians.  After  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century  the  Meletians  disappeared 
from  history. 


Chapter  XIX. 

THE    SCRIPTUEES    AND    TRADITION. 

1.  The  Old-Testament  Canon.  The  need  of  a  fixed 
and  complete  canon  of  revealed  truth  was  felt  by  the 
Church  in  its  earliest  period.  As  to  just  what  writ- 
ings were  canonical,  the  authority  rested  first  with  the 
Jews.  Of  these  there  were  two  classes — the  more  ex- 
act and  literal,  who  lived  in  Palestine,  and  preserved 
most  fully  the  traditions  of  their  ancestors ;  and  the 
more  free  and  inexact,  who  lived  in  Alexandria,  and 
were  inclined  to  permit  doubtful  books  to  enter  the  rec- 
ognized canon.  The  Christians  looked  to  the  Palestin- 
ian Jews  as  the  safer  guides,  and  hence  modelled  their 
canon  on  the  more  conservative  plan.  The  need  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  of  knowing  precisely  what  constituted 
the  canon, was  pressed  upon  the  early  Church  with  great 
force.  The  apologists  heard  from  all  sides  the  bitter 
lament,  "You  are  divided  as  to  your  sacred  books! 
Tell  us  what  they  are!"  Hence,  every  safe  means  was 
employed  to  get  at  uniformity.  Some  Christian  teach- 
ers were  inclined  to  admit  doubtful  books.  For  ex- 
ample :  Origen  defended  the  narrative  of  Susanna 
against  the  attack  of  Julius  Africanus;  he  Avas  equally 
energetic  in  his  plea  for  Tobit  and  Judith.  Barnabas 
declared  the  four  books  of  Ezra  to  be  inspired.  Tertul- 
lian  attached  the  same  value  to  the  Book  of  Enoch. 
Ilermas  elevated  to  similar  honor  the  Book  of  Eldam 
and  Modal,  two  men  whom  tradition  alleged  to  have 


THE    SCRIPTURES    AND    TRADITION.  71 

written  a  prophecy  in  the  wilderness.  Melito,  bishop 
of  Sardis,  visited  Palestine  (a.d.  170),  with  a  view  to 
getting  at  the  best  understanding  concerning  the  Jev/- 
ish  view  of  the  real  canon.  It  may  be  safely  said  that, 
by  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  there  was  a 
general  understanding  among  Christians  as  to  the  ex- 
act books  of  the  Old-Testament  canon.  They  are  the 
same  which  the  evangelical  Protestant  Church  of  our 
times  regards  as  inspired. 

2.  The  New  Testament.  There  was  more  hesitation 
and  uncertainty  in  arriving  at  agreement  on  the  New- 
Testament  canon.  The  whole  period  of  the  early 
Church  was  one  of  intense  literary  fertility.  Many 
books  were  written  by  Christians  which  the  average 
believer  had  loved  so  dearly,  and  which  had  been  so 
helpful,  that  it  is  not  surprising  he  should  place 
them  closely  beside  the  works  of  Paul  and  John.  The 
Epistle  of  Barnabas,  Clement's  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians, Polycarp's  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  the  Shep- 
herd of  Hermas,  the  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the 
Apocalypse  of  Peter,  had  each  its  friends.  The  Mu- 
ratori  fragment,  which  proceeded  from  the  Roman  or 
North  African  Church,  gives  the  first  list  of  canonical 
books: — the  Gospels,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  thirteen 
epistles  by  Paul,  the  first  epistle  of  John,  and  the  first 
epistle  of  Peter.  As  early  as  a.d.  170  these  were  ac- 
cepted as  the  canon,  but  with  a  general  belief  that 
time  would  show  it  necessary  to  make  the  list  larger. 
There  was  a  difference  of  sentiment,  according  to  the 
country,  and  even  the  community.  The  second  and 
third  epistles  of  John,  and  the  Apocalypse,  were  in 
general,  but  not  universal,  use,  for  the  Peshito  is  the 
only  collection  omitting  them.  Jude  was  accepted  by 
the  great  body  of  the  Church,  but  James  was  admitted 


'72  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

by  the  Syrians  only.  Greek  and  Syrian  Christians  ad- 
mitted the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  but  the  Western 
Church  repelled  it.  Second  Peter  was  longer  in  dis- 
pute than  any  of  the  New-Testament  writings.  Origen 
and  Eusebius  declared  against  it ;  but  other  teachers 
were  equally  warm  in  their  advocacy. 

3.  Settlement  of  the  Whole  Canon.  The  Christian 
scholars  were  not  inclined  to  hasten  towards  a  conclu- 
sion. They  were  not  willing  to  decide  in  one  century 
what  a  more  thorough  scholarship  in  the  next  would 
make  it  necessary  to  revoke.  But  in  time  they  reached 
a  general  understanding.  The  East  and  the  West 
combined  their  views,  and  found  that,  after  all,  there 
was  an  identity  of  opinion.  By  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century  there  was  a  general  understanding  as  to  the 
proper  books  to  be  classed  as  the  canon.  Nothing  now 
remained  but  to  declare  this  exact  canon.  This  was 
done  by  the  Synod  of  Hippo,  in  North  Africa,  a.d.  393, 
under  the  leadership  of  Augustine.  This  list  of  the  in- 
spired books  comprised  our  present  twenty-seven  books 
of  the  New  Testament.  The  Council  of  Carthage,  a.d. 
397,  adopted  tlie  same  resolution.  Shortly  afterwards. 
Innocent,  Bishop  of  Rome,  gave  his  ajoproval  to  the 
conclusions  of  the  councils  of  Hippo  and  Carthage. 
From  this  time  forth,  for  eleven  centuries,  there  was  no 
change  in  the  sentiment  of  the  Church  as  to  its  canoni- 
cal Scriptures.  The  Council  of  Trent,  which  met  a.d. 
1545,  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  against  the  new  and  vigorous  Protestantism, 
was  the  first  great  body  to  elevate  the  Apocrypha 
into  equal  honor  with  those  other  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  which  have  never  been  questioned. 

4.  The  Force  of  Tradition.  In  a  time  when  the  copies 
of  the  Scriptures  were  only  in  manuscript,  and  of  great 


THE    SCRIPTURES    AND    TRADITION".  73 

cost,  much  value  was  attached  to  the  personal  recol- 
lections of  the  apostles  and  their  immediate  successors. 
Tradition,  or  matter  handed  down  from  father  to  son, 
was  rich  in  reminiscence,  and  not  likely,  for  two  or 
three  centuries,  to  go  very  far  astray  from  exact  histor3^ 
That  the  narratives  of  aged  Christians,  which  they  had 
heard  many  years  before  from  their  seniors,  should  pos- 
sess great  interest  to  the  societies  where  they  belonged, 
and  were  soon  to  die,  is  not  surprising.  There  is  a  rich 
glow  and  delightful  fragrance  in  the  words  of  Irengeus 
to  Florin,  in  which  he  repeats  what  he  had  heard, 
when  very  young,  from  the  lips  of  the  aged  Polycarp, 
who  had  been  taught  when  young  by  John,  and  who 
had  told  him  much  of  what  the  beloved  disciple  had 
repeated  concerning  the  miracles,  doctrines,  and  life  of 
our  Lord.  Irenseus  thus  continues  :  "  This  I,  Irenagus, 
too,  heard,  at  that  time,  with  all  eagerness,  and  Vv^'ote 
down,  not  on  parchment,  but  in  my  heart,  and,  by 
God's  grace,  I  constantly  bring  it  up  again  to  remem- 
brance." 

6.  The  Later  Tradition,  as  understood  many  centuries 
afterwards,  and  playing  an  important  part  in  the  faith 
of  Christian  people,  carried  with  it  three  elements : 
Apostolic  origin,  catholicity,  and  communication  by  the 
bishops.  But  the  early  tradition  was  simply  the  un- 
written truth,  and  orally  communicated  from  one  gen- 
eration to  another.  It  was  never,  at  this  early  period, 
clothed  with  any  such  force  as  belonged  to  the  Script- 
ures. Origen  and  Irengeus  went  further  than  most 
teachers  in  the  large  place  they  gave  to  tradition. 
But  theirs  was  not  the  prevailing  view  in  the  Church. 
Tradition  was  regarded  a  treasure  of  priceless  value, 
because  preserving  the  golden  links  by  whicli  the 
memorabilia  of  the  apostles  and  companions  of  our 


74  SHORT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

Lord  were  treasured.  But  there  was  no  tendency  to 
raise  tradition  to  equality  with  the  Scriptures,  much 
less  to  lift  it  above  thera.  This  unliistorical  and  un- 
just view  was  never  originated  until  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury ;  nor  assumed  form  until  the  syncretistic  contro- 
versy of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  nor  was  made  an 
argument  against  the  orthodoxy  and  scholarship  of 
the  early  Church  until  the  eighteenth,  when  Semler 
and  Lessing  found  it  serviceable  to  build  up  a  theory. 
The  precise  relation  of  Scripture  and  tradition  in  the 
early  Church  was  one  of  friendly,  but  not  equal,  jux- 
taposition. No  tradition  of  the  period  had  the  confi- 
dence of  the  general  body  of  believers  which  was  not 
based  upon,  and  in  harmony  with,  the  Scriptures.  So 
far  as  doctrine  was  concerned,  tradition  was  simply 
that  unwritten  construction  of  doctrine  which  after- 
wards assumed  fixed  form  in  the  great  symbols  of 
the  Church. 


Chapter   XX. 

APOCRYPHAL    WRITINGS. 

1.  The  Inventive  Spirit  of  the  early  Church  can  be 
fully  seen  in  the  large  mass  of  apocryphal  works. 
While  the  close  of  the  Scriptural  canon  sealed  the  fate 
of  all  such  writings,  there  was  still  a  strong  local  at- 
tachment to  some  of  them.  One  of  the  chief  sources 
of  these  apocryphal  productions  was  the  Ebionitic  and 
Gnostic  heresies.  The  great  body  of  the  Church  was 
busied  in  resisting  these  heresies,  and  yet  the  Ebionites 
and  Gnostics  themselves  produced  many  such  works, 
and  to  the  great  outlying  Avorld  the  Christian  Church 
had  to  bear  the  responsibility  for  the  authorship  of 
works  produced  by  its  own  heretics. 

2.  The  Broad  Field.  The  authors  of  the  spurious 
-writings  confined  themselves  to  no  narrow  territory. 
The  whole  realm  of  thought  lay  open  to  them,  and 
they  roamed  at  large.  They  were  as  much  at  home  in 
the  patriarchal  times  as  in  later  periods,  and  were  as 
skilful  in  writing  works  in  the  name  of  the  Koman 
Clement  as  of  Paul  or  Isaiah.  The  five  favorite  fields 
were:  1.  Old-Testament  history;  2.  The  life  of  Jesus; 
3.  The  life  and  labors  of  the  apostles;  4.  The  Epistles; 
and,  5.  Ecclesiastical  polity  and  discipline. 

3.  Particular  Books.  The  Book  of  Enoch  enjoyed 
large  popularity.  It  w^as  a  product  of  the  century  im- 
mediately preceding  Christ,  but  in  the  second  century 
it  underwent  adaptations  to  the  new  Christian  con- 


1Q  SHOET  HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY   CHURCH. 

ditions.  It  has  been  preserved  in  a  translation  from 
the  Ethiopic  MS.  The  Testimony  of  the  Twelve  Pa- 
triarchs, written  by  a  Jewish  Christian,  contains  proph- 
ecy and  admonition.  It  claims  to  have  been  written  by 
the  twelve  sons  of  Jacob,  who  instruct  their  posterity 
on  various  duties,  and  foretell  our  Lord's  incarna- 
tion and  the  downfall  of  Judaism.  The  Apocalypse  of 
Moses,  Isaiah's  Ascension  to  Heaven,  the  Fourth  Book 
of  Ezra,  and  the  Prophecies  of  Hystaspes  belong  in  the 
same  prophetic  category. 

4.  The  Sibylline  Oracles.  These  were  in  fourteen 
books,  and  were  in  imitation  of  the  Roman  Sibyllines, 
v/hich  enjoyed  wide  popularity.  The  Christian  Sibyl- 
lines  were  designed  to  promote  Christian  interests. 
They  were  prophecies  concerning  the  second  coming 
of  Christ,  the  destruction  of  Rome,  the  coming  of 
Nero  as  antichrist,  and  the  final  triumph  of  Christian- 
ity. The  Christian  apologists  made  frequent  appeals 
to  them,  though  with  varying  confidence.  They  claim, 
in  the  text,  to  have  been  written  by  a  daughter-in-law 
of  Noah.  This  was  certainly  far  enough  back  to  sat- 
isfy the  most  antiquarian  taste  of  the  times. 

5.  The  Apocryphal  Accounts  of  Our  Lord  were  abun- 
dant. The  First  Gospel  of  James  the  Less  was  a 
minute  description  of  the  alleged  early  life  of  Clirist, 
and  of  the  personal  history  of  Mary.  The  Gospel  of 
the  Nativity  of  St.  Mary,  the  History  of  Joachim  and 
Anna,  and  of  the  Birth  of  Mary  and  the  Infant  Saviour, 
the  History  of  Joseph  the  Carpenter,  the  Gospel  of 
the  Infant  Saviour,  and  the  Gospel  of  Thomas,  fur- 
nished a  vast  mass  of  legendary  matter,  which,  though 
worse  than  valueless,  shows  at  least  how  profoundly 
the  thought  of  the  Church  was  centred  in  the  life  and 
person  of  Jesus.     The  Gospel  of  Nicodemus,  the  Acts 


APOCRYPHAL    WRITINGS.  77 

of  Pilate,  and  the  Epistles  of  Lentulus  bear  on  the 
Passion  of  our  Lord,  and  are  very  minute  in  legendary 
details.  To  the  spurious  apostolical  correspondence 
belong  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  the  Epistle  to  the  Lao- 
diceans,  an  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  in  the  Armenian 
language,  the  correspondence  of  Paul  with  Seneca, 
the  Epistle  of  Ignatius  to  the  Mother  of  Jesus,  and  the 
Epistles  of  the  Holy  Virgin  to  the  inhabitants  of  Mes- 
sina, Florence,  and'  other  cities.  The  Apocalypse  of 
Peter,  the  Ascension  of  Paul,  and  the  Apocalypses  of 
Thomas  and  Ste2:)hen,  and  a  second  one  by  John,  are 
only  a  small  portion  of  this  luxuriant  department  of 
spurious  Christian  literature. 

6.  The  Apostolical  Constitutions.  This  is  the  most  im 
portant  writing  on  discipline  and  order  proceeding  from 
the  early  Church.  It  is  a  collection  of  eight  books  of 
instruction  for  both  the  clergy  and  laity  on  practical 
duties  and  ecclesiastical  usages  and  polity.  They  claim 
to  have  been  written  by  the  apostles,  but  really  arose  at 
different  times,  no  part  having  existed  earlier  than  the 
third  century.  The  first  six  books  bear  internal  evi- 
dence of  having  been  written  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
third  century,  Avhile  the  seventh  and  eighth  indicate 
an  origin  not  earlier  than  the  fourth  century.  The 
Apostolic  Canons  are  brief  rules  for  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline and  law.  They  were  issued  by  the  Roman 
Clement  as  an  authentic  work  of  the  apostles,  but 
were  afterwards  declared  by  the  Roman  bishop  Hor- 
misdas,  in  the  sixth  century,  to  be  apocryphal.  The 
second  Trullan  Council,  a.d.  692,  recognized  them  as 
authority  for  the  Eastern  Church. 


Chapter  XXL 

THEOLOGY    DURING   THE    EARLY    PERIOD. 

1  General  Agreement.  On  the  fundamental  Christian 
doctrines  there  was  a  o-eneral  asfreement  amono;  Chris- 
tians,  both  East  and  West,  even  before  the  first  formu- 
la of  truth  was  established:  namely,  by  the  Council  of 
Nicsea,  a.d.  325.  There  was  a  bold  discussion  of  great 
themes.  The  daring  of  those  first  heroes  for  the  truth 
is  astounding.  With  only  a  brief  history,  and  writhing 
in  the  agonies  of  martyrdom,  they  nevertheless  wrote 
on  themes  of  the  broadest  character.  There  was  a  dif- 
ference between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Christian.  The 
Greek  was  speculative.  He  caught  up  the  terminol- 
ogy of  Aristotle  and  the  rest,  and  thrust  it  boldly  into 
his  argument  on  the  eternal  generation  of  our  Lord. 
There  was  no  subject  on  which  he  did  not  enter  with 
boundless  enthusiasm.  The  lioman  was  more  careful. 
He  had  less  to  say,  but  more  to  do.  He  went  beyond 
his  pile  of  manuscripts,  and  thought  of  a  stronger 
organization  of  the  Church,  a  firmer  body  of  believers, 
a  more  solid  Christian  phalanx  for  the  conquest  of  the 
world.  But,  beneath  the  speculation  of  the  Greek  and 
the  practical  aggressiveness  of  the  Roman,  there  was 
one  faith.  With  all  the  differences  in  the  schools, 
there  was  but  little  difference  in  the  ruling  theology. 

2.  The  Divine  Character  lay  at  the  foundation  of  all 
doctrine.  Here  tlie  Christian  mind  came  into  severest 
antagonism  to  the  Greek  polytheism  and  the  Oriental 


THEOLOGY   DURING   THE    EAKLY    PERIOD.  79 

dualism.  The  Christian  believer  regarded  God  as 
Creator  and  Preserver  of  the  universe.  No  attribute 
in  modern  evangelical  theology  was  denied  him  in  the 
patristic  period.  Only  when  the  Christians  began  to 
consider  the  relations  of  the  three  persons  in  the  God- 
head, and  God's  revelation  of  himself  to  the  world,  do 
we  observe  variety.  But  even  here  there  was  essential 
unity.  Tertullian  varied  from  the  general  view  in  sup- 
posing God  must  have  a  body.  This  he  did  because  of 
the  misfortune  of  his  philosophy,  which  was  borrowed 
from  paganism,  that  corporeity  is  a  necessity  of  all  ex- 
istence. Origen  and  the  school  of  Alexandria  controlled 
the  Church  in  avoiding  all  corporeal  representations  of 
deity.  The  whole  patristic  Church  said,  "  We  accept 
the  divine  character.  We  do  not  need  to  prove  it. 
Its  proof  is  in  us  and  beyond  us."  Arnobius  said, 
"  To  attempt  to  prove  God's  existence  is  not  much 
better  than  to  deny  it."  Origen,  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria, and  Athanasius  agreed  in  saying  that  the  only 
possible  knowledge  we  can  have  of  God  is  based  on 
grace  and  the  Logos. 

3.  Unity  and  Trinity,  The  methods  of  proving  these 
attributes  of  the  Godhead  were  not  fortunate.  In- 
stead of  adhering  to  the  language  of  the  Scriptures, 
the  theologians  made  use,  as  well,  of  the  dialectics  of 
Aristotle,  and  of  the  example  of  the  elder  faiths  of 
India  and  of  Persia,  to  show  a  parallelism.  Yet  there 
was  no  compromise ;  no  disposition  to  reduce  the 
Christian  doctrine  to  the  plane  of  any  other  faith. 
The  term  triad  was  first  used  by  Theophilus  of  Anti- 
och,  while  Tertullian  was  the  first  to  introduce  the 
word  trinity  into  Christian  theology.  While  all  the 
fathers  accepted  the  three  persons,  there  was  a  differ- 
ence of  method  in  proving  the  equality  of  essence. 

6 


80  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

Justin's  \iew  expressed,  however,  the  general  and  final 
belief  of  the  Church:  The  three  persons  exist;  they 
are  of  equal  quality  ;•  beneath  all  the  variety  in  the 
universe  there  is  a  unity  of  operation  by  the  one  God. 
4.  Christology.  This  was  the  most  fully  developed 
of  all  departments  of  theology.  The  Logos  of  Alexan- 
dria became  the  Logos  of  the  Christian  world.  Some 
teachers  proved  the  incarnation  of  our  Lord  by  a  proc- 
ess of  necessity;  that  to  reveal  is  a  divine  necessity, 
just  as  the  gem  must  shine.  But  this  was  a  low  plane 
of  logic.  The  prevailing  method  was:  God  is  all-loving 
and  all-wise,  and  he  willed  the  salvation  of  man,  and 
by  the  only  means  possible.  God's  nature  is  to  bless. 
He  is  not  an  introspective  character.  His  goodness  is 
operative  when  it  is  needed.  It  was  the  Father's  good 
pleasure  to  reveal  himself.  His  will  absorbed  all  ne- 
cessity. Our  Lord  was  generated  by  the  Holy  Ghost, 
born  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  led  a  human  life.  This 
life  was  sinless.  Justin,  Theophilus  of  Antioch,  Tatian, 
and  the  pseudo-Ignatius  held  that  the  Son  existed  from 
all  eternity  coequally  with  the  Father,  but  that,  before 
creation,  he  proceeded  from  the  Father,  and  began  to 
lead  a  separate  personal  existence.  Irena?us  taught 
Christ's  separate  and  personal  Sonship  with  the  Father; 
Tertullian,  that  the  members  of  the  Trinity  are  of  the 
same  substance,  but  constitute  a  succession;  and  Ori- 
gen,  that  the  Logos  was  of  eternal  generation.  There 
was  a  gradual  approach  to  unity  of  view,  which  was 
finally  crystallized  in  the  statement  of  Nica3a.  The 
Christian  thinkers  had  been  in  danger,  on  the  one  hand, 
of  emphasizing  the  humanity  of  our  Lord  to  the  detri- 
ment of  his  divinity;  and,  on  the  other,  of  allowing 
his  divinity  to  absorb  his  humanity.  Bat  the  perfec- 
tion of  each  nature  finally  entered  into  the  permanent 


THEOLOGY    DUKING    THE    EARLY    PERIOD.  81 

faith  of  the  Church.  The  final  Christology  of  the  pe- 
riod reduces  itself  to  this:  Christ  was  eternally  coex- 
istent and  co-operative  with  the  Father;  he  permitted 
the  full  penalty  of  sin  to  be  visited  upon  himself;  his 
death  was  voluntary,  and  achieved  our  redemption;  he 
rose  from  the  dead,  ascended  into  heaven,  became  our 
High  Priest;  in  the  fulness  of  time  he  will  come  to 
judge  tlie  world,  when  he  will  reward  the  righteous 
and  punish  the  guilty. 

5.  The  Holy  Spirit.  The  discussions  on  the  Logos 
threw  the  consideration  of  the  Holy  Ghost  into  the 
background.  The  adversaries  of  Christianity  knew 
that  Christianity  must  stand  or  fall  with  the  divinity 
of  Christ.  There  was  no  emphatic  and  general  discus- 
sion of  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Ghost  before  the  fourth 
century.  This,  however,  must  not  be  regarded  as  an 
early  doubt  of  the  divine  character  and  personality  of 
the  third  person  in  the  Trinity,  as  alleged  by  the  Tu- 
bingen school.  On  the  contrary,  it  was  a  doctrine  so 
firmly  accepted  that  the  defence  of  it  was  not  con- 
sidered a  necessity.  Later,  the  separate  and  divine 
personality  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  with  ail  his  divine  of- 
fices, was  clearly  laid  down  by  Origen  and  TertuUian, 
and  was  formally  laid  down  in  the  conclusions  of  the 
general  councils. 

6.  Cosmology.  Here  was  a  fruitful  field  of  specula- 
tion. "  Is  matter  eternal  ?"  was  a  question  which 
Persia  had  hurled  at  the  Western  mind,  and  because 
Christianity  answered  "No,"  the  whole  Oriental  phi- 
losophy opposed  the  new  religion.  The  Christian 
claimed  that  his  sacred  books  taught  that  only  an  eter- 
nal God  could  create  matter.  TertuUian  spoke  for  the 
whole  Church  when  he  said,  that  God  did  not  need  the 
world  for  his  own  glory,  but  that  creation  was  for  man. 


82  SHOKT   HISTORY    OF   THE   EAELY   CHtJKOH, 

7.  Anthropology.  The  pagan  believed  in  a  past  gold- 
en age.  The  Christian  looked  back  upon  lost  Para- 
dise, but  his  eye  was  keen  to  foresee  a  perfect  restora- 
tion. He  studied  man  in  relation  to  the  future.  Sin 
passed  from  our  first  parents  upon  all  humanity.  The- 
ophilus  of  Antioch  and  Tertullian  taught  that  man  can 
arrive  at  spiritual  excellence  by  the  development  of 
his  spiritual  faculties,  through  his  own  choice  and  the 
quickening  power  of  the  Spirit.  Three  views  on  the 
union  of  soul  and  body  were  advocated:  1.  Pre-exist- 
ence  of  the  soul  before  union  with  the  body.  2.  The 
soul  is  transmitted  through  Adam  to  all  generations. 
3.  Each  soul  is  created  with  the  body  at  birth.  Each 
had  its  advocates.    But  the  third  view  finally  prevailed. 

8.  Doctrine  of  the  Church.  The  world's  social  life  is 
impure.  Against  this  stands  the  Church — organized 
purity,  God's  children,  his  bride,  the  foreshadowing  of 
his  everlasting  kingdom.  It  is  a  living  body  of  be- 
lievers. There  may  be  unbelievers  in  the  body,  but,  in 
the  main,  the  Church  is  pure,  and  God  will  take  care  to 
preserve  its  character.  The  object  of  the  Church  is 
the  culture  of  the  soul,  until  released  from  its  bondage. 
It  is  the  depository  of  the  divine  truth.  God  has  fur- 
nished in  the  Church,  according  to  Cyprian  and  Ire- 
nseus,  the  universal  operation  of  the  Spirit. 

9.  The  Sacraments.  There  was  a  disposition,  on  the 
part  of  some  teachers,  to  associate  a  sacrificial  union 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  with  the  water  in  baptism.  Origen 
says  that  baptism  is  the  beginning  and  the  source  of 
the  gifts  of  the  Spirit.  Baptismal  regeneration,  though 
not  taught,  had,  nevertheless,  thus  early,  its  supporters. 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus  called  baptism  "  the  sacrament 
of  the  new  birth;"  Cyprian   spoke   of  the  "regener- 

,"  and  Augustine    of   "the   sacrament   of 


THEOLOGY  DURING  THE  EARLY  PERIOD.      83 

birtli  and  regeneration."  The  Greeks  were  much  in- 
clined to  emphasize  the  spiritual  gifts,  while  the  Latins 
were  more  cautious,  and  attached  great  importance  to 
the  previous  spiritual  state  of  the  baptized.  In  the 
general  faith  of  the  Church  there  was  no  belief  in  bap- 
tismal regeneration.  The  act  of  baptism,  in  the  adult, 
was  the  human  sign  of  a  divine  act  of  grace  already- 
performed  upon  the  soul.  TertuUian  disapproved  of 
infant  baptism;  Origen  favored  it,  and  described  it  as 
an  existing  usage  ;  Cyprian,  speaking  for  the  Western 
Church,  did  the  same.  The  usage  was  universally  ac- 
knowledged by  the  middle  of  the  third  century.  The 
Lord's  Supper  was  the  human  sign,  divinely  appoint- 
ed to  keep  in  mind  the  death  of  Christ.  Ordinary 
bread,  and  wine  mixed  with  water,  were  employed  as 
symbols.  After  the  second  century  none  but  baptized 
persons  could  partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  During 
the  whole  of  the  patristic  period  there  was  not  a  trace 
of  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  save  in  a  theory 
stated  by  the  fertile  Irenseus,  that  the  elements,  after 
consecration,  have  the  effective  power  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ.  All  the  Christian  writers,  down  to 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  looked  upon  the  ele- 
ments solely  as  symbols  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ.  The  words,  "This  is  my  body,"  were  con- 
strued as  a  liturgical  accommodation,  meaning  the  rep- 
resentation of  the  body  and  blood  by  the  bread  and 
wine,  and  in  no  sense  a  substantial  transformation. 

10.  Eschatology.  The  Church  loved  to  think  of  a 
peaceful  and  happy  future.  The  early  coming  of 
Christ  was  expected  by  many  of  the  laity,  while  some 
of  the  more  serious  teachers  and  scholars  thought  they 
saw  in  the  New  Testament  abundant  warrant  for  the 
early  introduction  of  the  millennium.     But  all  such 


84  SnOET   HISTORY    OF  THE    EARLY   CHURCH. 

hopes  were  soon  eclipsed  in  the  Christian  mind  by  the 
broad  and  white  harvest-field  to  be  reaped  before  his 
coming.  In  the  Alexandrian  theology  we  find  the  first 
traces  of  a  purgatorial  fire.  Origen  made  the  final 
fire,  which  should  destroy  the  world,  as  the  same  fire 
which  should  purify  all  souls.  During  the  first  three 
centuries  the  general  Church  believed  that  all  who  die 
enter  an  intermediate  state,  but  after  the  beginning  of 
the  fourth  century  the  opinion  prevailed  that  Hades 
would  be  the  temporary  home  of  only  the  wicked, 
while  the  righteous  would  immediately  enter  into  the 
presence  of  God.  The  present  life  was  regarded  as 
the  only  probationary  possibility.  The  idea  of  a  sec- 
ond probation  was  of  much  later  origin,  and  belongs 
to  the  superstitions  which  grew  up,  most  likely,  from 
pagan  and  Oriental  sources.  The  final  restoration  of  the 
wicked  was  advocated  by  Origen,  who  even  admitted 
the  devil  to  its  benefits.  But  here,  as  in  other  fields, 
the  Church  was  slow  to  be  guided  by  the  warm  fancy 
and  generous  sympathy  of  the  Egyptian  enthusiast. 

11.  The  Effect  of  the  Nicene  Council.  The  process  of 
theological  adjustment  was  slow,  and  attended  with 
great  difiiculty.  The  differences  in  race,  climate,  and 
intelligence  were  serious,  and,  before  a  theological  con- 
sensus was  arrived  at,  there  Avas  the  appearance  of 
hopeless  diversity.  But  the  Council  of  Nicaea  had  the 
great  effect,  not  alone  of  settling  the  controversy  on 
the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  placing  it  beyond  doubt  as 
a  fundamental  doctrine,  but  of  teaching  the  Church 
that  there  was  to  be  a  written  standard  of  universal 
faith,  determined  by  the  Cliurch  in  its  representative 
capacity;  that  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  would  not 
be  left  to  the  temporary  trium])h  of  some  acute  dia- 
lectician; that  an  emperor  could  not  make  and  ordain 


THEOLOGY  DURING  THE  EARLY  PERIOD.      85 

a  Christian  creed  with  any  hope  of  success;  and  that 
theology  is  not  a  stagnant  science,  which  admits  of  no 
enlargement  with  the  flight  of  centuries  and  with  the 
growth  of  the  general  domain  of  knowledge.  It  is  not 
likely  that,  notwithstanding  the  controversies  on  theo- 
logical questions,  the  faith  of  the  Christians  was  seri- 
ously agitated.  The  hair-splitting  sophistries  of  Chris- 
tian debaters,  who  had  brought  their  pagan  dialectics 
with  them  into  the  Christian  fold,  did  not  disturb  the 
average  Christian.  Those  men  had  little  to  do  with 
the  determination  of  doctrine.  The  general  body  of 
plodding  and  fervent  members,  who  knew  no  logic  but 
the  facts  of  the  gospels,  were  the  principal  agents  who 
kept  the  Church  close  to  its  original  moorings.  The 
theology  of  tlie  matter-of-fact  believer  was  exact 
and  closely  knit.  He  was  not  disconcerted  by  the 
jargon  on  the  process  of  the  Logos  towards  manifesta- 
tion, or  the  jyrocession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  also  from 
the  Son,  or  whether  only  the  wicked  enter  Hades.  He 
knew  that  Jesus  was  born  in  Bethlehem,  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  the  divine  Comforter,  and  that  his  Lord 
would  not  inflict  on  him  a  long  suspense  after  martyr- 
dom before  permitting  him  to  behold  his  face. 

The  Nicene  conclusions,  far  from  being  the  mere  fruit 
of  theologians,  were  the  faith  of  the  great  common- 
wealth of  believers  throughout  Christendom.  The  real 
master  at  Nicsea  was  neither  Athanasius  nor  Constan- 
tine,  but  the  humble  believer,  who  might  be  keeping 
his  flocks  beside  the  Euphrates,  or  cultivating  his  patch 
of  lentils  in  the  Thebaid,or  singing  his  psalms  beneath 
his  thatched  roof  on  the  outskirt  of  a  dark  forest  of 
the  Germania  of  Trajan's  day. 


Chapter  XXII. 
ecclesiastical  government  and  the  roman  primacy. 

1.  Revolution  in  Cliurch  Government.  The  early  pe- 
riod of  the  Church  was  marked  by  a  simple  govern- 
ment. The  offices  and  orders  were  few,  derived  from 
the  Scriptures,  and  administered  without  ostentation 
and  formality.  But  the  enlargement  of  territory,  the 
multiplication  of  societies,  the  dealing  with  the  lapsed 
and  other  classes  requiring  special  dealing,  and,  above 
all,  the  bringing  of  the  Church  into  union  with  the 
state,  increased  the  offices  to  an  alarming  extent.  The 
political  system  of  Rome  entered  more  and  more  into 
the  Christian  mind  as  a  model  for  government.  The 
metropolitan  centre  and  the  synodal  bond  Avere  derived 
directly  from  the  imperial  arrangement  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  provinces.  Under  Con stan tine  tlie  Church 
became  only  the  smaller  within  the  larger  empire.  Sim- 
plicity of  government  continued  until  about  the  end 
of  the  second  century,  but  after  that  the  tendency  was 
towards  a  complex  polity.  For  at  least  three  quarters 
of  a  century  before  Constantino  the  new  taste  had  ex- 
hibited itself,  but  when  he  converted  Christianity  into 
the  state  religion  all  obstacles  were  removed,  and  offices 
multiplied. 

2.  The  Minor  Clergy.  These  began  Avith  the  sub- 
deacons,  who  assisted  the  deacons  in  subordinate  ser- 
vices. The  acolyths  were  assistants  to  the  bishops,  in 
many  subordinate  relations.     At  the  communion  ser- 


ECCLESIASTICAL    GOVERNMENT.  87 

vice  they  filled  the  cup  with  wine  and  water,  and 
could  administer  the  elements  alone.  The  lectors,  or 
readers,  appear  as  a  clerical  order  early  in  the  third 
century.  They  had  charge  of  the  sacred  books  of  the 
society,  read  prescribed  passages  to  the  congregation, 
and  usually  consisted  of  ministerial  candidates.  The 
catechists  w^ere  only  occasionally  a  special  order,  their 
duties  being  performed  by  presbyters,  deacons,  and 
lectors.  When  the  congregation  was  very  large  they 
were  called  into  exercise,  to  propose  candidates  for  ad- 
mission to  the  Church.  The  hermeneiitce,  or  interpret- 
ers, interpreted  the  sermon  and  scriptural  selections 
into  the  language  of  the  people,  when  the  language 
was  not  Greek  or  Latin.  This  was  the  case  in  the 
Carthaginian  Church,  where  the  language  was  Punic. 
Singers  or  precentors  were  used  in  the  larger  churches, 
to  aid  in  music.  The  lowest  rank  was  the  ostiarii,  or 
doorkeepers,  who  served  as  ushers,  preserved  order, 
and  had  charge  of  the  sacred  buildings.  These  offices 
were  in  force  by  the  beginning  of  the  third  century. 
During  the  following  century  we  find  the  other  sub- 
ordinate officers:  the  ecooiomos,  or  trustee  of  Church 
property ;  the  defensor,  or  attorney ;  the  notaruis,  or 
secretary,  wlio  recorded  and  preserved  official  records; 
the  parabolani^  or  nurses  of  the  sick;  and  \\iQ  fossores, 
or  grave-diggers. 

3.  The  Greater  Clergy.  The  chief  clerical  work  de- 
volved upon  the  deacons  and  presbyters,  whose  func- 
tions remained  the  same  as  at  the  beginning.  When 
the  Roman  Clement  wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Corinthi- 
ans, A.D.  70,  there  was  no  difference  between  bishop 
and  presbyter.  The  presbyter  was  the  pastor,  with  all 
the  sacred  ministerial  functions.  The  bishop  was,  at 
the  beginning,  the  same.    During  all  the  early  centuries 


88  SHORT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

he  was  only  the  presbyter,  but  with  a  larger  govern- 
ment, embracing  a  group  or  territory  of  separate  soci- 
eties. Originally,  the  Church  or  congregation  elected 
the  bishop,  and  invited  neighboring  bishops  to  conse- 
crate him  to  his  new  office.  Then,  in  the  third  century, 
the  bishop  was  elected  by  brother  bishops  in  adjoining 
territory,  after  the  manner  of  the  election  of  an  apos- 
tle. By  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  the  election 
of  a  bishop  was  confirmed  by  the  votes  of  all  the  bish- 
ops of  the  province,  in  presence  of  the  laity,  and  by 
their  consent.  The  Council  of  Nicaea  gave  the  bishops 
of  the  province  the  right  to  elect  without  lay  partici- 
pation— a  mode  very  popular  in  the  West,  but  not  in 
the  East,  where  the  laity  continued  to  exercise  the  right 
of  both  veto  and  direct  election.  The  bishops  were 
elected  sometimes  by  acclamation  of  the  multitude,  as 
in  the  case  of  Cyprian,  and  the  bishops,  presbyters,  and 
other  clergy  were  compelled  to  submit.  It  is  histori- 
cally true  that,  in  such  cases,  the  choice  was  generally 
a  wise  one.     The  people  knew  their  man. 

4.  Powers  of  the  Bishop.  With  time  the  prerogatives 
of  the  bishop  enlarged.  At  first  his  power  was  limited 
by  dependence  on  the  co-operation  of  the  presbyters. 
He  could  nominate  the  clergy,  but  could  not  advance 
to  orders  without  the  vote  of  the  presbyters.  He  could 
not  determine  doctrinal  questions,  or  discipline,  or  gen- 
eral administration.  He  had  to  summon  the  clergy  of 
the  diocese,  and  submit  the  questions,  and  abide  by  their 
vote.  The  government  of  the  local  society  was  vested 
in  the  hands  of  the  laity,  and  the  presbyter  was  only 
the  spiritual  guide.  The  process  by  Avhich  the  bishop 
became  the  chief  officer  Avas  this:  From  the  first  soci- 
ety another  radiated,  and  still  others  from  them,  until 
there  was  a  group  of  churches,  which  extended  even 


ECCLESIASTICAL    GOVERNMENT.  89 

into  the  suburban  parts.  The  parent  Cliurch  was  held 
in  highest  esteem.  The  bishop's  residence  was  sup- 
posed to  be  in  connection  with  it,  but  over  each  Church 
there  was  a  presbyter,  and  over  all  the  bishop,  whose 
spiritual  functions  were  no  greater  than  those  of  the 
humblest  presbyter  in  the  diocese.  There  was  some  va- 
riation, according  to  place,  in  the  independence  of  the 
individual  society.  In  Constantinople,  for  example, 
the  presbyters  of  the  mother  Church  served  the  three 
filial  churches  in  order.  There  was  a  tendency  of  the 
richer  suburban  churches  towards  independence.  In 
time  they  were  grouped,  and  had  their  bishop,  who  was 
called  a  chorepiscopos,  or  rural  bishop.  This  office  be- 
came a  source  of  serious  disorder.  The  rural  bishop 
was  not  acknowledged  to  be  equal  to  his  brother  in 
office  in  the  city.  Several  of  the  provincial  synods  of 
the  fourth  century  took  from  the  rural  bishops  the 
right  of  nominating  the  clergy.  Finally,  the  chorepis- 
copos  was  abolished  by  the  council  of  Laodicea,  a.d. 
341,  and  of  Sardica,  a.d.  347. 

5.  The  Metropolitan  Authority  was  closely  related  to 
the  diocese.  The  word  'metropolitan  does  not  appear 
before  the  Council  of  Niccea.  But  the  idea  had  been 
in  force  from  the  earlier  period  of  the  expansion  of 
the  Church.  The  city  where  the  gospel  was  planted, 
and  from  which  it  extended  into  other  regions  of  the 
province,  was  the  maternal  city  of  the  Church  of  tho 
whole  territory.  In  due  time  other  societies,  remote 
from  the  centre,  were  formed,  which  grew  in  number 
and  importance,  and  were  grouped  into  dioceses.  But 
the  connections  were  kept  up  with  the  central  au- 
thority. Rome,  for  example,  was  the  original  Italian 
Church.  But  other  cities  in  due  time  received  tho 
gospel,  such  as  Tusculum,  Tibur,  Velitrae,  Ostia,  and 


00  SHORT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

Portus,  each  of  whicli  became  a  diocese,  with  a  sepa- 
rate bishop.  Now  the  bishop  living  in  the  original  so- 
ciety was  the  metropolitan.  He  was  always  regarded 
with  peculiar  reverence,  because  of  his  supposed  at- 
tachment to  the  doctrines  and  usages  of  the  Church. 
The  metropolitan  had  important  rights.  He  could  con- 
vene provincial  synods,  preside  over  them,  and  see  that 
the  conclusions  were  enforced.  There  were  six  metro- 
politans— those  of  Rome,  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  Alexan- 
dria, Ephesus,  and  Corinth. 

6.  The  Patriarchate.  This  was  a  higher  office  than 
the  metropolitan.  The  number  of  metropolitans  was 
reduced  to  four  general  patriarchates — Rome,  Alexan- 
dria, Antioch,  and  Constantinople.  This  was  an  imi- 
tation of  the  political  division  by  Constantine  of  the 
whole  Roman  Empire  into  four  prefectures.  The  pa- 
triarchs consecrated  the  metropolitans  and  the  bishops 
of  the  diocese,  summoned  the  synods  of  the  whole 
l)atriarchate,  had  supervision  of  all  general  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs,  even  the  court  of  final  appeal,  and  could 
have  legates  at  foreign  courts.  The  patriarchate  of 
Alexandria  comprised  six  provinces;  Antioch,  fifteen; 
Constantinople,  twenty-eight;  and  Jerusalem,  three. 

7.  The  Roman  Bishop.  Many  things  contributed  to 
give  pre-eminence  to  the  Roman  bishop.  The  Church 
in  Rome  was  distinguished  for  its  conservatism.  It 
vv^as  firm  in  the  midst  of  many  heresies.  After  the 
overthrow  of  Jerusalem  it  was  believed  to  be  the  oldest 
apostolic  Church.  Its  good  quality  of  faith  was  well 
known,  or,  as  Paul  says,  had  been  "spoken  of  through- 
out the  whole  world."  In  the  giving  of  alms,  in 
missionary  zeal,  and  in  doctrinal  purity  the  Roman 
Christians  had  no  superiors.  Tlie  certain  residence  of 
Paul  in  Rome,  and  the  already  growing  impression  of 


ECCLESIASTICAL    GOVERNMENT.  91 

Peter's  sojourn  there,  were  important  apostolical  asso- 
ciations, which  clothed  the  Roman  society  with  great 
sanctity.  By  the  middle  of  the  second  century  there 
was  frequent  mention  of  the  primacy  of  Rome.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  third  century  there  was  a  revision 
of  the  Recognitions,  in  which  the  idea  of  a  Roman 
primacy  was  made  very  prominent.  So  soon  as  this 
intimation  was  expressed,  there  were  strong  views 
against  it.  Cyprian  declared  that  each  bishop  is  equal, 
and  that  the  Church  is  a  unit.  "Be  it  so,"  cried  Ori- 
gen,  when  he  heard  of  the  new  Roman  claim  to  foun- 
dation by  Peter,  and  therefore  pre-eminence;  "but  if 
Peter  is  the  only  one  on  whom  the  Church  is  built, 
what  becomes  of  John  and  the  other  apostles?  Is 
Peter,  forsooth,  the  only  one  against  whom  the  gates 
of  hell  should  not  prevail  ?"  Irenteus  spoke  in  a  simi- 
lar strain.  And  yet  the  trend  of  the  general  policy 
was  towards  Roman  centralization.  Each  new  Roman 
bishop  advanced  beyond  the  claims  of  his  predecessor. 
Zephyrinas  held  that  he  alone  should  be  arbiter  on 
the  discipline  of  penitents;  Victor  assumed  the  same 
right  on  the  Easter  controversy;  and  Stephen  asserted 
a  similar  claim  on  the  baptism  of  heretics.  The  re- 
sisting force  lay  in  the  Eastern  Church,  v>'here  Antioch 
was  leader.  But  there  was  little  cohesion  in  the  East. 
It  was  regarded  as  provincial,  while  in  spiritual  affairs 
Rome  came  constantly  into  more  prominent  leadership. 
In  due  time  little  or  no  attention  was  paid  to  the 
Eastern  protests.  When  Firmilian,  the  obscure  bishop 
of  Cappadocian  Caesarea,  dared  to  charge  Stephen  of 
Rome  with  boasting  of  episcopal  superiority,  he  was 
only  laughed  at  in  the  Western  metropolis. 

8.  Constantinople   was   called   New  Rome.      When 
Constantine  made  the  obscure  Byzantium,  which  had 


92  SHORT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

been  subordinate  to  Heraclea,  the  capital  of  Thrace,  his 
vast  capital  and  the  centre  of  imperial  authority,  much 
advantage  to  the  Church  was  expected.  But  the  result 
was  not  satisfactory.  When  he  passed  away  there  was 
little  purity  left.  The  palace  became  a  nest  of  intrigue 
and  revolution.  The  Turkey  of  our  times,  with  its 
plots  and  counter-plots,  and  its  nameless  corruptions, 
is  only  the  modern  reflection  of  the  depravity  which 
dwelt  in  the  imperial  home  of  the  successors  of  Con- 
stantine.  The  members  of  the  court  frequently  hurled 
theological  terms  at  each  other ;  while  the  wrangles 
of  schismatics  w^ere  transferred  to  the  homes  of  the 
nobility,  with  little  loss  of  bitterness.  As  in  the  Bos- 
phorus  one  sees  the  tumultuous  flow  of  northern  and 
southern  waters,  so,  beside  its  beautiful  and  historic 
banks,  in  the  fourth  century,  one  could  see  the  meeting 
of  all  the  conflicting  thoughts  which  agitated  the 
whole  Eastern  Church.  Each  new  party  hoped  for 
success  from  imperial  favor.  The  agitations  around 
the  eastern  half  of  the  Mediterranean  became  so  seri- 
ous as  to  retard  missionary  operations,  to  threaten 
unity,  and  to  promote  spiritual  decline.  In  the  West 
the  life  was  more  steady.  There  was  no  emperor  to 
lean  upon.  When  an  Eastern  heresy  reached  Rome, 
it  was  generally  throttled,  or  vivisected,  without  much 
ado.  The  Roman  Church  life  had  the  equipoise  of 
power,  and  of  faith  in  its  high  destiny.  It  was  willing 
to  hear  any  new  thing  which  came  to  it,  but  not  to  go 
out  in  quest  of  novel  ideas.  It  possessed  neither  the 
wish  nor  the  talent  for  theological  invention.  It  was 
willing  to  wait,  and  to  profit  by  blunders  elsewhere, 
but  not  to  look  backward,  except  to  gather  up  support- 
ing traditions  for  a  steadier  and  farther  march  into  the 
future. 


Chapter  XXIII. 

SACRED    SEASONS    AND    PUBLIC    WORSHIP. 

1.  THe  Weekly  Festivals.  The  festal  cycle  of  the 
Christian  world  gradually  assumed  fixed  form.  The 
tendency  was  towards  an  enlargement  upon  the  apos- 
tolic limitation.  But  each  addition  w^as  achieved  after 
heated  discussion.  The  Jewish  Christian,  after  losing 
the  traces  of  the  Jewish  calendar,  w^as  slow  to  add  any 
new  day  ^vhich  might  be  suggested  by  the  Gentile 
Christian.  The  first  day  of  the  week  came  constantly 
into  more  frequent  use  than  the  seventh  for  sacred 
services.  But  the  Jewish  Christians  continued  to  use 
both  the  first  and  seventh  days,  until  the  first  genera- 
tion had  disappeared,  wdien  the  influence  of  Gentile 
Christianity  became  predominant.  Barnabas,  Ignatius, 
and  Justin  furnish  positive  proof  of  the  early  substitu- 
tion of  the  first  for  the  seventh  day.  That  it  was  called 
Sunday  because  of  a  Saxon  god,  is  an  old  error,  for 
which  there  is  no  foundation.  It  w\is  a  day  of  gladness, 
because  of  the  great  gift  of  our  Lord's  resurrection, 
the  day  of  new  light,  the  day  of  the  sun  (>/  IjXiov  fi/jie- 
pa).  Wednesday  and  Friday  w^ere  also  used  as  days 
of  service,  but  never  in  the  high  sense  of  the  Sunday 
service.  The  Wednesday  service  was  designed  to  com- 
memorate our  Lord's  arrest  by  the  Jewish  council,  and 
Friday  to  commemorate  his  death.  Those  days,  the 
fourth  and  sixth  of  the  week,  were  called  the  stations 
— a  military  term,  as  a  reminder  that  the  Christian  is  a 


94  SHOUT    HISTORY    OF    THE    EAELY    CHURCH. 

soldier,  and  must  be  on  his  guard  against  the  enemies 
of  Christ.* 

2.  The  Yearly  Festivals.  The  Passover  was  the  most 
important.  It  signified  the  festal  commemoration  of 
the  sparing  of  the  first-born  in  Egypt,  and,  in  a  Chris- 
tian sense,  the  memorial  celebration  of  the  death  of 
Christ.  The  great  Easter  controversy  arose  on  the 
duration  of  the  Easter  fast.  It  was  only  a  question  of 
a  few  hours,  but  the  whole  Church  was  divided  on  the 
trivial  matter.  The  Western  Christians  contending  for 
the  longer  time,  and  the  Eastern  for  the  shorter.  From 
Gaul  to  Pontus  the  discussion  swept.  Synods  were 
called,  and  the  strife  became  bitter.  But  the  Western 
view  prevailed,  and  those  who  held  to  the  Eastern  opin- 
ion either  withdrew  their  opposition  or  concentrated 
into  a  little  sect,  the  Quartodecimanians,  whose  home 
was  confined  to  Asia  Minor  and  proconsular  Africa. 
They  had  but  a  short  existence.  The  Roman  bishop 
Victor  refused  to  acknowledge  as  Christians  all  Avho 
sympathized  with  the  Eastern  view,  and  excommuni- 
cated them.  Pentecost  gained  additional  strength  in 
the  Christian  mind.  While  the  Jew  celebrated  it  in 
thankful  commemoration  of  the  harvest,  and  the  gift  of 
the  Law  on  Sinai,  the  Christian  revered  it,  and  placed 
it  very  high  in  his  calendar,  in  commemoration  of  the 
outpouring  of  the  Spirit  after  our  Lord's  ascension. 
Epiphany  became  a  holyday  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
fourth  century.  The  first  definite  trace  of  it  is  a.d.  360. 
The  Cln-istmas  celebration  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
thought  of  as  yet,  either  in  the  Eastern  or  Western 
Church. 

3.  Martyr  Days.      The    growing    reverence    for    the 

*  Tertullian  says  :  "  Static  dc  militari  nomen  accepit,  nam  et  militaria 
del  sumus."— "De  Orat."  cap.  19. 


SACRED    SEASONS   AND    PUBLIC   WORSHIP.  95 

martyrs  led  to  special  services  on  the  anniversary  of 
their  death.  By  a  happy  thought,  the  day  of  the  mar- 
tyr's death  was  called  his  "birthday."  Processions 
were  made  on  these  days  to  the  scene  of  the  martyrdom, 
cliurches  were  erected  over  the  remains  of  the  martyrs, 
memorial  sermons  were  preached  on  the  anniversary, 
and  the  special  day  was  added  to  the  calendar.  This 
tendency,  innocent  and  natural  in  the  first  four  centu- 
ries, afterwards  became  a  superstition,  and  brought 
many  evils  into  the  Church.  On  the  memorial  martyr 
days  the  Lord's  Supper  was  celebrated,  with  a  view  to 
continued  fellowship  with  them.  It  was  called  an  ob- 
lation or  sacrifice  for  martyrs — sacrificimn  pro  mar- 
tyribus.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  during 
the  entire  patristic  period  these  memorial  days  for  mar- 
tyrs were  no  part  of  the  order  of  the  Church.  They 
grew  out  of  the  fame  and  merit  of  Christians,  who  died 
sooner  than  renounce  their  faith  in  Christ.  The  mar- 
tyrology  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  large  use 
of  images,  and  the  realistic  services,  were  all  of  much 
later  and  less  spiritual  origin. 

4.  Churches.  The  church  was  on  the  plan  of  the 
Jewish  temple  and  the  synagogue.  It  was  called  the 
Lord's  house,  the  house  of  prayer,  the  house  of  the 
Church.  The  architecture  of  the  first  churches  was 
simple,  and  gave  no  promise  of  the  subsequent  splen- 
dor of  the  basilica  and  the  cathedral.  The  interior  of 
the  church  consisted  of  three  parts — the  vestibule,  the 
nave,  and  the  clioir.  The  congregation  assembled  in 
the  nave,  and  here  the  pulpit  was  erected,  the  Script- 
ures read,  and  the  sermon  delivered.  The  choir  was 
used  alone  for  the  clergy;  it  corresponded  to  the  holy 
of  holies  of  the  Jewish  temple.  It  was  separated  from 
the  nave  by  a  lattice  or  railing,  and  curtains,  and  was 

7 


96  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

elevated  above  the  nave.  In  the  centre  of  the  choir 
was  the  wooden  table  bearing  the  symbols  of  our 
Lord's  death.  In  the  rear,  following  the  semicircular 
wall,  the  clergy  sat,  while  the  bishop  sat  on  a  cathedra, 
or  raised  seat. 

5.  Images.  There  was,  very  early,  a  distaste  for  all 
representations  of  deity  or  sacred  characters.  Clement 
of  Alexandria  expressed  the  sentiment  of  his  age:  "  The 
custom  of  daily  looking  on  the  representation  of  the 
Divine  Being  desecrates  his  dignity."  The  time  had 
not,  as  yet,  arrived  when  Christian  art  was  employed 
to  clothe  our  Lord's  person  with  ethereal  beauty  and 
sweetness.  The  theology  of  the  times  attributed  to 
him  the  sad  and  homely  visage  of  prophecy,*  and  it  is 
a  quaint  fancy  of  Tertullian  that  he  could  never  have 
been  despised  of  men,  and  have  suffered  death  for 
them,  if  in  his  person  he  had  manifested  his  heaven- 
ly glory.  Origen  held  that  his  whole  person  was  re- 
pulsive. The  Eastern  Church  has  never  deviated  from 
this  view.  In  the  Graeco-Russian  Church  of  to-day, 
whether  amid  the  barbaric  splendor  of  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  Isaac,  in  St.  Petersburg,  or  in  the  more  ancient 
Church  of  the  Transfiguration  on  the  Kremlin,  it  is  the 
same  sad  and  austere  countenance  which  we  discover  in 
the  ancient  frescoes  of  Ravenna.  The  Council  of  El- 
vira, A.D.  305,  declared  against  the  use  of  all  images  in 
sacred  buildings.  The  Western  Church  was  inclined, 
early,  to  the  use  of  images,  and  this  preference  was 
one  of  the  causes  which  finally  led  to  the  division  of 
the  East  and  the  West. 

*  Isa.  liii.  2,  3.     Cf.  Tertullian,  "  Adv.  Judaeos,"  cap.  14. 


ChxVpter  XXIY. 
ecclesiastical  discipline. 

1.  Careful  Training  was  early  observed  in  the  spiritual 
life  of  the  Church.  No  sooner  was  a  society  organized 
than  the  closest  attention  was  paid  to  the  religious  in- 
struction of  the  young.  The  converts  of  Pentecost  were 
immediately  received  into  the  fellowship  of  believers. 
But  the  work  was  only  just  begun.  There  must  be 
edification.  Each  believer  was  regarded  as  a  temple, 
not  finished,  but  susceptible  of  all  beautiful  and  sym- 
metrical forms.  He  must  be  built  up.  Hence,  full 
provision  was  made  for  instruction  and  training.  Paul's 
epistles  abound  in  intimations  that  constant  attention 
was  paid  to  the  domestic  training  for  Christian  life, 
and  for  careful  instruction  in  Biblical  knowledge.  The 
new  adult  convert  had  everything  to  learn.  He  had 
just  come  in  from  paganism.  No  miracle  could  com- 
pensate for  the  previous  absence  of  religious  truth. 
When  one  embraced  the  new  faith,  or,  as  the  phrase 
of  the  time  went,  "  laid  off  the  toga  for  the  pallium," 
he  was  a  blank. 

2.  The  Catechumens  were  required  to  pass  through  a 
severe  discipline.  There  was  no  fixed  time  for  termi- 
nating the  catechumenate.  While  the  apostles  bap- 
tized immediately  on  profession  of  faith,  the  patris- 
tic Church  moved  more  slowly,  for  experience  taught 
them  that  nothing  was  lost  by  a  longer  process  be- 
fore full  membership.      There  were  three  classes  of 


98  SHORT   HISTOEY   OF  THE    EARLY   CHURCH. 

catechumens  —  the  hearers,  the  kneelers,  and  the  pe- 
titioners. The  hearers  could  come  to  the  general  ser- 
vice, and  hear  the  sermon  and  the  lessons,  but  could 
not  remain  for  prayers.  The  kneelers  could  hear  also 
the  prayers,  and  even  the  prayer  of  the  imposition  of 
hands.  The  petitioners  could  hear  the  entire  service, 
and  petition  for  baptism  at  the  next  public  appointing, 
which  was  usually  Easter  Sunday.  When  the  petition 
was  accepted  the  names  of  the  candidate  and  his  spon- 
sors were  recorded  in  the  diptych,  or  register.  Then 
came  a  close  examination,  or  ''scrutiny,"  which  lasted 
twenty  days.  When  public  baptism  and  reception  took 
place  the  new  member  was  admitted  to  the  Eucharist. 
After  the  period  of  persecution  had  closed,  the  time  for 
the  duration  of  the  catechumenate  became  briefer  than 
before.  The  Apostolical  Constitutions  favored  three 
years.  The  Synod  of  Elvira  laid  down  two.  But  the 
Synod  of  Agde  shortened  the  time  to  eight  months. 

3.  The  Apostates  were  the  more  difficult  class  to 
manage.  The  temptations  to  apostasy  were  numer- 
ous. In  some  regions  the  process  of  restoration  con- 
tinued for  years.  In  others,  when  penitents  were  ready 
to  suffer  martyrdom,  the  ordeal  was  brief.  In  the  Af- 
rican Church  many  apostates  secured  letters  of  peace 
from  men  just  before  suffering  martyrdom,  and  with 
these  as  authority  they  boldly  demanded  admission 
again  into  the  Church.  One  man,  Lucian,  boldly  de- 
clared that  he  had  granted  peace  to  all  apostates  in 
North  Africa,  and  had  declared  their  sins  absolved;  and 
Cyprian,  in  a  gentle  mood,  cried  aloud  that  the  Church 
must  keep  peace  with  its  martyrs.  There  were  two  class- 
es of  sins — the  venial  and  the  mortal.  But  martyrdom 
was  regarded  as  the  completion  of  any  penitential  experi- 
ence. In  the  latter  part  of  the  third  century  the  penitents 


ECCLESIASTICAL   DISCIPLINE.  99 

were  more  largely  classified:  mourners,  hearers,  kneel- 
ers,  and  bystanders.  A  bystander  was  the  most  ad- 
vanced. He  could  advance  up  the  nave  of  the  church, 
join  in  all  the  prayers  of  the  Church,  and  witness  the 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  but  not  participate 
in  it.  During  all  the  stages  tovfards  restoration  the 
penitent  must  give  practical  proof  of  sincerity  by  ab- 
staining from  all  diversions,  by  observing  all  the  pub- 
lic fasts,  by  giving  liberally  towards  the  support  of  the 
poor,  and  by  assisting  in  burying  the  dead.  Restora- 
tion was  completed  by  admitting  the  penitent  to  the 
Lord's  Supper,  by  the  prayer  of  absolution  and  rec- 
onciliation, and  by  the  imposition  of  hands  by  the 
bishop. 

4.  The  Penitential  Presbyter  was  the  special  officer 
who  supervised  the  penitents  during  all  the  stages  of 
restoration.  It  was  his  duty  to  see  that  all  require- 
ments were  met,  that  the  bishop  was  duly  notified  of 
the  progress  made  by  the  penitent,  and  that  the  time 
was  fixed  for  final  restoration.  This  early  office  in  the 
Church  has  been  wrongly  supposed  to  be  a  warrant  for 
the  modern  confessional.  But  the  penitential  presby- 
ter was  in  no  sense  a  confessor.  His  duty  was  to  hear, 
guard,  and  advise,  but  never  to  receive  private  confes- 
sion. He  was  the  representative  of  the  Church  to  im- 
part, and  not  to  receive.  This  office  was  abolished  a.d. 
390,  and  was  never  restored  until  many  centuries  after- 
wards, by  the  institution  of  the  confessional. 


Chaptee  xxy. 

CHRISTIAN    LIFE    AND    USAGES'. 

1.  The  Charitable  Spirit  of  the  Church  in  the  apos- 
tolic time  took  larger  form  in  the  patristic  period. 
There  was  no  need  of  Christians  in  one  place  which  did 
not  awaken  symjoathy  everywhere.  When  Cyprian 
saw  that  the  Numidian  Christians  could  not  pay  the 
required  ransom  of  their  captive  brethren,  he  took  a 
large  collection  in  Carthage  for  that  purpose,  and  sent 
it  to  them,  with  a  letter  full  of  fraternal  expressions. 
Dionysius  of  Corinth  lauded  the  Roman  society  as 
the  helper  of  Christians,  without  distinction,  from  its 
very  origin.  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  in  a  letter  to 
Stephen,  Bishop  of  Rome,  pays  the  same  tribute.  Ba- 
sil of  Cappadocia  wrote  a  letter  of  thanks  to  Rome  for 
money  sent  to  him  to  redeem  captive  Christians  from 
their  barbarous  foes.  Demetrius  drew  a  striking 
picture  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christians  during  the  pesti- 
lence in  Alexandria.  Gifts  for  the  support  of  the 
Church  were  made  at  each  service;  often  these  con- 
sisted in  wares,  or  produce  of  the  soil,  according  to 
the  pursuits  of  the  people.  In  the  East  a  fixed  sura, 
or  the  tithes,  was  held  to  be  the  proper  standard  of  an- 
nual beneficence.  But  in  the  West  there  was  no  rule. 
The  great  teachers  opposed  any  defined  measure,  say- 
ing that  the  Lord  required  all  that  could  be  spared. 
A  careful  record,  the  matricnla^  was  preserved  of  all 
the  details  of  the  benefactions. 


CHRISTIAN    LIFE    AND    USAGES.  101 

2.  The  Incentives  to  Knowledge  were  very  great. 
The  transition  from  paganism  to  Christianity  was  a 
thorough  revolution.  The  field  of  Christian  knowl- 
edge was  a  new  world.  In  the  schools  catechetical 
exercises  prevailed.  The  secular  sciences  were  sub- 
ordinated to  religion.  Christianity  had  not  built  up 
its  great  libraries,  but  the  books  written  by  the  lead- 
ing Christian  thinkers  were  ah-eady  read  with  profound 
interest.  Each  Church  was  the  centre  of  knowledge. 
Copies  of  the  Scriptures  were  expensive,  but  were 
multiplied,  and  each  Church  possessed  several  copies, 
together  with  expository  and  other  works.  All  these 
were  for  the  benefit  of  the  congregation  in  the  inter- 
vals of  service  and  during  the  week.  There  was  a 
special  room  for  the  use  of  books,  which  was  called 
the  Fhrontisterion,  or  thinking-shop.  One  of  the  first 
impulses  of  the  new  Christian  who  was  possessed  of 
means  was  to  employ  copyists,  and  have  the  entire 
Scriptures  transcribed,  for  loaning  or  presenting  to 
either  churches  or  private  circles.  Even  during  the 
time  of  persecution  so  many  copies  of  the  Scriptures 
had  found  their  way  into  private  hands  that  the  pagan 
wrath  was  aroused.  During  the  Diocletian  persecu- 
tion, especially,  their  possessors  were  ordered  to  deliver 
up  vast  numbers  of  them.  Even  the  pagan  enemies 
secured  copies,  for  the  works  of  Celsus,  Porphyry, 
Hierocles,  and  others  give  abundant  proof  that  the 
authors  must  have  had  a  personal  inspection  of  some 
portions  of  the  Bible. 

3.  The  Domestic  Life  was  in  direct  contrast  with 
everything  pagan.  There  were,  therefore,  no  remind- 
ers of  the  old  idolatry.  The  typical  Greek  and  Roman 
houses  had  been  profusely  adorned  with  figures,  busts, 
and  monograms  of  favorite  divinities.     But  even  this 


102  SHORT   HISTOEY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

was  a  decline  from  the  early  Roman  austerity.  For 
nearly  two  centuries  after  the  founding  of  Rome  no 
citizen  had  so  far  accommodated  himself  to  the  super- 
stition of  Greece  or  Egypt  as  to  erect  a  statue  to  any 
deity.  But  the  times  brought  sad  changes.  The  ex- 
cavations in  Pompeii,  and  the  many  memorials  of  art 
from  the  Roman  ruins,  show  how  thoroughly  the  later 
art  was  superseded  by  a  gross  idolatry.  The  Chris- 
tian's first  impulse  was  to  put  away  all  such  things. 
He  lost  no  time  in  blotting  out  every  trace  of  the 
obedient  Mercury,  the  majestic  Apollo,  the  generous 
Ceres,  and  even  the  omnipotent  Jove,  from  doorway, 
court,  and  hall.  But  he  was  not  satisfied  with  this 
severe  absence  of  all  symbolism.  Even  the  more  cau- 
tious Christian  writers  encouraged  a  safe  and  proper 
counterpart  to  the  polytheistic  symbolism  of  their 
pagan  adversaries.  Clement  of  Alexandria  urged  the 
use  of  Christian  symbols  on  seal  rings,  and  named,  as 
proper  figures,  the  dove,  as  an  image  of  the  Holy 
Gliost;  the  fish,  with  reference  to  the  call  of  Zebedee's 
sons  to  be  fishers  of  men ;  the  ship,  as  an  emblem  of 
the  advancing  Church;  the  lyre,  as  the  type  of  Chris- 
tian joy  ;  and  the  anchor,  as  an  expression  of  hope. 
The  crucifix  was  never  used. 

4.  Epistolary  Writings.  Eveiy  great  teacher  was  an 
industrious  correspondent.  Paul  had  set  the  example, 
and  it  was  diligently  followed  by  his  successors  in 
evangelization.  Epistolary  writing  had  long  been  a 
favorite  Roman  fashion.  Cicero,  Seneca,  Pliny,  and 
many  other  authors  chose  the  form  of  the  letter  to  an 
individual,  in  order  to  inform  the  public  of  their  views 
on  many  special  subjects.  The  fathers  in  the  Church 
chose,  therefore,  a  means  of  information  which  they 
found  in  use  already,  both  from  apostolic  and  pagan 


CHRISTIAN    LIFE    AND    USAGES.  103 

example.  The  letters  of  Polycarp  and  Origen,  and  the 
eighty-six  warm  and  nervous  epistles  of  Cyprian,  are 
only  a  small  part  of  the  epistolary  inheritance  of  those 
times  to  the  later  Church.  A  number  of  the  apologists 
addressed  their  works  to  Roman  emperors.  The  Chris- 
tians were  largely  represented  among  the  commercial 
and  laboring  classes,  and  often  changed  their  abodes. 
They  followed  the  lines  of  commerce.  As  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  the  Christian  people  from  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board have  gone  into  the  far  western  regions,  and 
taken  with  them  their  Christian  spirit,  and  built 
churches,  so,  in  the  third  and  fourth  centuries,  the 
Christians  observed  the  new  openings  of  business  and 
planted  Christian  societies  in  the  places  where  they 
settled.  Between  the  old  and  new  societies  a  frequent 
correspondence  was  maintained.  Christians  who  went 
upon  a  journey,  for  any  purpose,  Avere  often  the  bearers 
of  letters,  to  be  delivered  on  the  way  or  on  reaching 
the  place  of  destination.  When  these  letters  arrived, 
being  on.  a  durable  fabric,  either  papyrus  or  jDarchment, 
they  became  the  permanent  possessions  of  the  society 
or  the  individual  receiving  them.  The  synodical  let- 
ters, which  were  written  after  each  session  of  the  pro- 
vincial synod  to  similar  bodies  in  other  provinces,  will 
convey  some  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  official  rela- 
tionship was  carried.  When  action  was  taken  on  a 
schism,  or  on  any  special  subject,  the  utmost  prompt- 
ness was  employed  to  communicate  the  fact  far  and 
wide,  while  a  bishop,  on  being  chosen  to  the  office,  was 
equally  prompt  in  sending  notification  of  his  election 
to  his  colleagues  in  any  part  of  Christendom. 

5.  The  Travels  of  the  Fathers.  The  most  distant  parts 
of  the  Church  were  brought  into  close  relationship, 
also,  by  personal  visitation.     The  fathers  were  busy 


104  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

travellers.  Many  parts  of  the  East  were  even  safer 
then  for  the  stranger  than  they  are  to-day.  The  Greek 
and  Roman  authors  were  in  the  habit  of  visiting  places 
which  they  described.  Homer  certainly  saw  the  Troad, 
for  the  Iliad  bears  internal  evidence  of  a  personal  ex- 
amination. Herodotus  journeyed  in  many  lands,  now 
among  the  priests  of  the  Upper  Nile,  and  now  in  Asia 
Minor,  endeavoring  to  verify  the  country  by  contact 
with  the  people  and  their  land.  Sallust  visited  Africa, 
in  order  to  be  faithful  in  his  picture  of  Jugurtha.  Je- 
rome lingered  long  in  Palestine,  in  order  to  make  sure 
work  in  his  exegetical  studies.  Papias,  Bishop  of 
Hieropolis,  conceived  the  happy  thought  of  visiting 
Palestine,  and  trying  to  find  among  the  most  aged 
people  of  different  countries  some  who  had  seen  our 
Lord  in  the  flesh,  "for,"  said  he,  "I  did  not  think  that 
I  could  get  so  much  aid  from  the  books  as  from  the 
words  of  those  living  and  remaining."  Out  of  this  tour 
grew  his  Explanation  of  the  Discourses  of  our  Lord. 

Polycarp,  in  his  extreme  age,  or  about  a.d.  158, 
visited  Rome,  to  come  to  an  understanding  with  the 
bishop  Anicetus,  concerning  the  baptism  of  heretics 
and  the  observance  of  Easter.  Irengeus  labored  in 
Asia  Minor,  Gaul,  and  Rome.  From  the  journey  of 
Hegesippus  to  Alexandria  came  one  of  the  richest 
points  of  Christian  research,  the  finding  of  Manetho's 
catalogue  of  the  kings  of  Egypt.  In  these  days  we 
regard  the  journey  to  Ararat  as  an  undertaking  of  re- 
markable difficulty,  but  Julius  made  it,  in  the  interest 
of  sacred  science,  and  identified  it  as  the  mountain  on 
which  the  ark  had  rested.  He  also  visited  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  located  the  site  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  was  a  diligent  traveller  over 
three  continents.    Origen  appears  to  have  visited  every 


CHRISTIAN   LIFE    AND    USAGES.  105 

part  of  the  Christian  world,  including  far-off  Persia. 
Riifinus  studied  the  monastic  life,  by  personal  observa- 
tion among  the  monks  of  the  Nitrian  desert.  Hierony- 
mus  was  an  ideal  traveller  in  the  interest  of  sacred  learn- 
ing. He  located  himself  in  Palestine,  in  order  to  learn 
the  idiomatic  construction  of  the  Biblical  text  from 
contact  with  the  people.  He  employed,  as  a  special 
teacher  in  Hebrew,  a  Jew,  who  instructed  him  by 
night,  lest  the  Christians  might  learn  of  it,  and  take 
offence.  He  even  visited  Cilicia,  in  order  to  learn  the 
deep  force  and  subtle  meaning  of  Paul's  epistles.  It 
need  not  occasion  surprise  that,  with  such  pains,  Hie- 
ronymus  should  easily  stand  at  the  hea-d  of  the  Latin 
Church,  and  that  to  his  patient  and  thorough  scholar- 
ship the  world  should  be  indebted  for  the  Vulgate  ver- 
sion. This  is  the  beautiful  justification  which  he  gave 
for  his  sojourn  in  Palestine: 

"As  the  history  of  the  Greeks  is  better  understood 
by  him  who  has  seen  Athens,  and  Virgil's  third  book 
by  him  who  has  sailed  from  the  Troad  to  Sicily,  and 
from  there  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  so  do  the  Holy 
Scriptures  become  clearer  to  him  who  has  seen  Ju- 
dsea  with  his  own  eyes,  and  has  made  himself  ac- 
quainted with  the  recollections  of  the  old  cities  and  the 
name  of  the  places,  whether  they  are  the  same  or  have 
been  changed.  Therefore  I  had  it  in  heart  to  under- 
take this  work,  in  connection  w4th  the  most  learned 
Jews,  so  that  I  have  wandered  through  the  country 
from  which  all  the  churches  of  Christ  take  their  tone." 


Chapter  XXVI. 
the  church  in  the  catacombs. 

1.  The  Roman  Catacombs  are  excavations,  often  at 
great  depth,  made  by  the  Christians  for  the  burial  of 
the  dead.  The  Roman  never  continued  his  warfare 
with  other  faiths  after  death.  He  allowed  the  Chris- 
tians every  liberty  in  the  disposition  of  their  dead. 
The  catacombs  had  been  already  in  use  by  the  Jewish 
residents  of  Rome.  At  first  they  probably  made  a 
mere  opening  in  the  hillside,  or  a  hollow  beneath  a 
shelving  wall,  as  their  fathers  had  done  in  Palestine 
from  remote  times.  But,  later,  the  Jewish  burial- 
place  became  an  approach  to  the  Christian  catacomb. 
Some  of  these  Jewish  wall  catacombs  are  still  in  ex- 
istence ;  as,  for  example,  one  opposite  the  catacomb  of 
San  Sebastiano,  and  another  nearer  Rome,  in  the  Ran- 
daniani  vineyard.  The  galleries  are  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Christian  catacombs,  only  less  ornate  and  regu- 
lar. The  Jewish  type  is  everywhere  recorded  by  the 
seven-branched  candlestick  or  other  Hebrew  symbols. 

2.  Roman  Burial  and  Cremation.  In  the  earlier  Ro- 
man times,  burial  was  the  method  in  use.  But  cre- 
mation came  into  use  later,  probably  as  a  result  of  the 
importation  of  the  Persian  idea  of  the  evil  in  matter. 
But  burial  was  still  preferred  by  many  of  the  older 
Roman  families,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  monument  of  the 
Scipios,  before  the  Porta  Capena,  of  Rome,  now  within 
the  walls.     The  graves  of  the  Nasos,  four  Italian  miles 


THE    CHUKCH    IN    THE    CATACOMBS.  107 

from  Rome,  on  the  Via  Flaminia,  consist  of  chambers 
hewn  in  the  tufa,  with  horizontal  niches  for  the  bodies, 
in  precisely  the  same  Avay  as  the  Christian  catacomb. 
There  was  one  difference,  however,  between  the  pagan 
and  the  Christian  burial-place.  The  pagan  catacomb 
was  exclusive,  like  the  palace,  being  confined  to  the 
family.  But  the  Christian  catacomb  was  for  the  whole 
brotherhood  of  faith.  The  ties  of  life  were  to  continue 
after  death.  The  poor  and  rich  should  be  together  in 
death,  as  they  had  worshipped  and  suffered  side  by 
side  in  life.  No  private  burial-place  in  Rome  could  be 
alienated  by  sale.  In  all  deeds  the  burial-place  was 
exempted  in  the  sale  of  a  villa  and  grounds. 

3.  The  Discovery  of  the  Christian  Catacomb.  The  mod- 
ern discovery  of  the  Roman  catacomb  took  place  in  May, 
1578.  Some  workmen  in  a  field  along  the  Via  Salaria 
came  across  a  mysterious  opening  in  the  earth,  which 
led  to  the  finding  of  passages,  frescoes  of  infinite  va- 
riety, Greek  and  Latin  inscriptions,  and  several  sar- 
cophagi. From  that  hour  subterranean  Rome  took  its 
place  as  a  priceless  storehouse  of  Christian  science. 
Until  then  the  burial-places  of  the  early  Christians  had 
awakened  no  interest  and  possessed  no  meaning.  They 
had  been,  practically,  unknown  since  the  early  Church. 
Hieronymus  relates  that,  when  a  schoolboy  in  Rome,  he 
and  some  of  his  companions  frequently  w^ent  down  into 
the  graves  and  looked  at  the  dust  of  the  martyrs,  and 
that  they  wandered  through  the  long  passages  and  cav- 
erns, and  saw  the  bodies  on  either  side,  and  that  the  dark- 
ness was  so  profound  that  his  boyish  imagination  was 
strongly  excited  by  the  scene,  so  that  he  could  not  help 
thinking  of  the  words  of  David,  "Let  them  go  down 
quick  into  hell,"  and  of  the  words  of  Vergil,  "  Terror 
surrounds  me;  even  the  silence  itself  is  horrible." 


108  SHORT   HISTORY    OP   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

4.  Bosio  and  the  Study  of  the  Catacombs.  Antonio 
Bosio,  born  in  1575,  was  the  first  to  reveal  the  rich 
treasures  which  had  lain  concealed  for  thirteen  centu- 
ries. No  difficulty  was  too  great  for  his  tireless  spirit. 
One  catacomb  after  another  was  opened  by  him.  He 
created  a  new  science.  He  devoted  thirty  years  to 
these  explorations  and  to  the  preparation  of  his  great 
work,  "  Roma  Soterranea,"  and  died  in  1629.  His  book 
did  not  appear  until  after  his  death.  John  Evelyn, 
who  visited  Rome  in  1645,  and  Bishop  Burnet,  who 
made  a  sojourn  there  forty  years  later,  were  the  first 
writers  to  reveal  to  the  English  world  the  extent  and 
significance  of  the  Christian  catacombs.  During  the 
time  which  has  since  elapsed  the  catacombs  have  been 
emptied  of  their  greatest  treasures,  which  have  been 
deposited  in  the  museum  of  St.  John  Lateran,  the 
Vatican,  and  other  places  in  Rome.  Some  have  drifted 
into  other  parts  of  Europe.  The  Christian  Museum 
of  the  Berlin  University  contains  the  best  collection 
of  memorials  from  the  catacombs  to  be  found  outside 
of  Rome.  These,  with  other  objects  illustrating  Chris- 
tian history,  have  been  gathered  through  the  energy 
and  zeal  of  Professor  Piper. 

6.  De  Rossi.  The  descent  into  a  catacomb  is  through 
a  church  or  chapel,  which  has  been  built  over  the  en- 
trance. The  passages  vary  in  size  and  length.  The 
aggregate  extent  is  a  matter  of  conjecture.  De  Rossi, 
the  greatest  of  all  the  later  explorers  and  writers  in 
this  rich  department,  supposes  the  length  of  the  pas- 
sages of  all  the  catacombs  to  be  equal  to  the  length  of 
the  entire  Italian  peninsula.  Marchi  reaches  an  esti- 
mate of  a  third  larger.  It  is  not  likely  that  all  the 
catacombs  have  been  explored.  As  late  as  1848  the 
magnificent  catacomb  of  Praetextatus  was  discovered, 


THE    CHURCH    IN   THE    CATACOMBS. 


109 


nOMAN    CATACOMBS. 


while  m  1874  De  Rossi  discovered  the  catacomb  of 
St.  Petronilla,  a  small  but  very  rich  storehouse  of  se- 
jDulchral  Christian  art.  No  approach  to  the  probable 
number  of  fixed  paintings,  carvings,  and  inscriptions 
which  have  been  taken  from  the  catacombs  can  be 
made  with  safety.  In  the  Lateran  Museum,  in  the  sar- 
cophagi alone,  there  are  two  hundred  and  seventy-six 
scriptural  carvings. 

6.  Familiarity  with  the  Scriptures.  The  catacombs 
were  continued  as  places  of  burial  down  to  about  a.d. 
410,  when  the  West  Goths  plundered  Rome.  They 
tell  the  story  of  the  faith  and  usages,  and  especially 
of  the  Scriptures,  down  to  that  date.  Every  part  of  the 
Old  Testament  was  known  to  the  Christians.  The 
word-pictures  of  the  Old  Testament  are  everywhere 
reproduced  in  rude  frescoes.  Noah  in  the  ark,  the  of- 
fering of  Isaac,  Moses  taking  off  his  shoes,  the  transla- 


110  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

tion  of  Elijah,  Daniel  in  the  lions'  den,  and  the  three 
Hebrews  in  the  fiery  furnace  were  favorite  topics,  as 
bearing  on  the  tribulations  of  the  Church  of  the  time. 
The  New  Testament  furnished  many  themes.  No  scene 
in  our  Lord's  ministry  remained  unnoticed.  Such  sub- 
jects as  indicated  a  brighter  future,  as  the  ever-grow- 
ing vine,  and  the  sower  and  the  seed,  were  special 
favorites  with  the  rude  Christian  artist  of  the  earliest 
period.  Many  Scriptural  citations  were  employed. 
The  scroll,  standing  out  of  a  cistus,  or  manuscript-case, 
was  frequent.  Paul  was  represented  in  this  way,  with 
evident  reference  to  his  writings.  Where  two  scrolls 
lay  before  a  figure,  the  meaning  was  that  the  deceased 
made  no  difference  between  the  Old  and  the  New  Tes- 
tament, but  accepted  both  as  the  equal  and  inspired 
word  of  God. 

7.  Orthodoxy  and  Christian  Defence  are  plainly  taught 
in  the  symbolism  of  the  catacombs.  Christ  was  every- 
where mentioned,  either  by  name  or  rude  figure.  The 
humblest  grave  bore  at  least  the  fish,  which,  in  Greek, 
constituted  the  monogram  of  Christ;  IX9YS  (lesus 
Christos,  Theou  Uios,  Soter — Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God, 
Saviour).  But  no  word  or  picture  has  been  found  in 
these  silent  passages  which  calls  up  any  of  the  violent 
controversies  which  swept  over  the  Church.  Neither 
has  there  been  found  a  suggestion  of  an  heretical  vagary. 
Sometimes  pagan  pictures  were  given,  but  always  to 
teach  with  greater  force  the  Messiah's  kingdom.  Three 
representations  of  Christ  as  Orpheus  have  been  found, 
two  by  Bosio,  in  the  catacomb  of  Domatilla,  and  one 
by  De  Rossi,  in  that  of  St.  Callista.  In  the  two  former  he 
sits  between  two  trees,  crowned  with  the  Phrygian  cap, 
and  playing  on  a  lyre.  Beasts  come  thronging  about 
iiim,  and  hear  his  notes,  and  are  charmed  and  tamed  by 


THE    CHUKCH   IN   THE    CATACOMBS.  Ill 

the  melody.  Doves,  peafowl,  horses,  sheep,  serpents, 
tortoises,  a  dog,  and  a  hare  at  a  lion's  feet,  hear  the 
music,  and  mingle  together  in  Edenic  simplicity  and 
peace.  The  whole  is  a  symbol  of  our  Lord's  peaceful 
empire,  and  also  an  indication  of  the  disposition  of 
early  Christians  at  Rome,  as  in  the  theology  of  Al- 
exandria, to  make  paganism  bring  its  offering  to  our 
Lord's  altar.  Theseus  slaying  the  Minotaur  was  made 
a  type  of  David  slaying  Goliath.  One  beautiful  fig- 
ure, gilt  on  glass,  and  dating  from  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century,  represents  our  Lord  with  radiated  head.  He 
holds  the  globe  of  universal  sovereignty  in  his  hand, 
while  at  his  feet  stands  the  cistus,  containing  the  gospel 
scroll.  The  Trinity  was  always  represented  in  such  a 
way  as  to  indicate  an  equality  of  persons.  De  Rossi 
furnishes  examples  of  firm  faith  in  this  doctrine,  where 
the  monogram  of  Christ  is  combined  with  the  triangle. 
8.  The  Representations  of  Christ  w^ere  all  of  the  cheer- 
ful, hopeful,  and  triumphant  type.  Only  twice,  among 
the  sculptures  of  the  Lateran  Museum,  is  he  repre- 
sented during  his  Passion.  He  everywhere  appears  as 
the  Good  Shepherd.  The  catacombs  received  the  bodies 
of  martyrs  in  many  a  bitter  persecution,  but  the  rela- 
tives and  friends  of  the  departed  uttered  no  syllable  of 
sorrow.  The  word  death  is  always  avoided.  ''^ In  .Pace^^ 
w^as  the  universal  legend.  Rest  and  triumph  were  up- 
permost in  the  mind.  The  dead  were,  at  last,  at  peace. 
The  grave  was  surrounded  with  images  of  beauty, 
peace,  and  joy.  It  was  only  after  the  persecutions 
were  over,  and  the  authors  had  taken  their  place  in 
oblivion,  that  any  symbol  of  suffering  was  placed  in 
a  Roman  catacomb.  The  record  of  martyrdom  was 
studiously  avoided,  not  only  that  the  Christian  might 
give  no  indication  of  disputing  the  "divine  pre-emi- 

8 


112  SHORT    HISTORY    OP   THE    EARLY    CHURCH, 

nence  of  the  Man  of  Sorrows,"  but  that  the  Christian 
was  not  willing  to  show,  even  by  figures  on  the  wall  of 
a  tomb,  that  he  remembered  the  agony  which  a  perse- 
cuting hand  had  produced.  Death  had  no  terror  to 
him,  and  the  persecutor  only  hastened  the  day  of  peace. 
From  the  symbolism  in  the  catacomb  one  would  think 
that  the  Christians  were  living  in  palaces,  and  that 
kings  were  their  servants.  The  hare,  feeding  on  grapes, 
the  luxuriant  palm-tree,  the  vase  of  flowers,  the  loaf 
of  bread,  and  the  dove  with  the  olive-branch,  are  met 
with  on  tablets  taken  from  all  the  catacombs. 

9.  The  Historical  Suggestions  are  sometimes  very 
rich.  An  epitaph  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Domatilla, 
dating  from  the  first  century,  shows  the  early  entrance 
of  Christianity  into  the  imperial  household.  The  clank 
of  the  slave's  chain  was  never  heard  in  a  Christian 
home.  So  completely  and  promptly  did  slavery  disap- 
pear that  of  the  eleven  thousand  epigraphs  from  the 
catacombs,  only  six,  and  two  of  these  doubtful,  contain 
any  allusion  to  the  evil,  and  then  only  in  brief  and  sim- 
ple language.  There  is  not  a  trace  of  Mariolatry  in 
any  early  inscription  or  symbol  of  a  catacomb.  The 
word  Maria  never  occurs  until  a.d.  381,  and  then  only 
after  the  word  Livia.  The  earlier  inscriptions  were 
brief,  like  the  breathings  of  the  stricken  soul,  such  as, 
*'To  the  dearest  mother,"  "To  the  sweetest  child," 
"  God  raise  thy  soul,"  or  "  Peace  to  thy  spirit."  Later, 
however,  when  the  catacomb  was  used  only  as  a  ceme- 
tery, and  not  also  as  a  place  of  refuge  from  the  destroy- 
er, the  epigraphs  were  more  fulsome  and  rhetorical.  A 
beautiful  epigraph,  "  Received  to  God,"  dating  from 
A.D.  217,  but  frequently  repeated  afterwards,  proves 
that  the  poor  soul  had  passed  through  its  ordeal  here, 
and  needed  no  purgatory.     In  De  Rossi's  compilation, 


THE    CHURCH    IN   THE    CATACOMBS.  113 

comprising  1374  different  epigraphs,  there  is  no  exam- 
ple of  prayer  for  the  dead.  Clerical  celibacy  finds  no 
support  in  the  catacombs  or  any  early  tombs.  An  in- 
scription,  found  on  the  Ostian  Way,  to  the  wife  of  a 
deacon,  or  sub-deacon,  ran  thus: 

"Levitse  conjunx  Petronia  forma  pudoris 
His  raea  deponens  sedibus  ossa  loco. 
Pascite  vos  lacrimis  dulces  cum  conjuge  natae." 

The  word  "puer"  occurred  frequently  in  connection 
with  mature  men.  It  was  an  index  of  the  association  of 
perpetual  youth  with  the  life  of  the  blessed.  Hence 
the  surviving  daughter  or  widow  or  son  could  well  call 
the  deceased  father  or  husband  "boy,"  in  view  of 
the  immortal  youth  on  which  he  had  now  entered. 
The  old  Hebrew  names  had  passed  away,  and  the 
epitaphs  show  a  transition,  as  in  the  Puritan  depres- 
sion in  England,  and  in  New  England  history,  where 
a  firm  faith  in  God,  and  a  recognition  of  his  special 
deliverances  in  sore  need,  blossomed  out  beautifully  in 
the  names  which  rejoicing  parents  gave  their  children. 
Hence,  in  the  epigraphs  of  the  catacombs  we  find  such 
names  as  the  following:  Diodorus  (God's  gift);  Fruc- 
tuosus  (Fruit-bringing) ;  Renovatus  (Renewed) ;  Anas- 
tasia  (Risen);  Irene  (Peace);  Sabbatia  (Holy -day); 
and  Concordia  (Harmony).  But  all  words  in  the 
catacombs  abounded  in  hope  and  joy. 


Chapter  XXYII. 
monasticism. 

1.  Early  Monasticism.  Traces  of  monasticism  can  be 
found  in  all  the  great  Oriental  lands.  Long  before 
Christianity,  and  even  before  the  conquests  of  Alex- 
ander in  India,  the  monastic  idea  had  gained  great 
strength.  Buddhism  and  Brahminism  made  large  use 
of  it  for  extending  their  doctrines  and  holding  their 
adherents.  The  idea  of  the  inherent  evil  of  matter  lay 
at  the  basis  of  the  monastic  principle.  It  was  supposed 
that  contact  with  society  diverted  the  mind  from  re- 
ligious contemplation,  and  made  it  less  worthy  to  be 
the  abode  of  the  worshipful  spirit.  Hence  the  only 
safety  was  to  get  far  from  men  and  their  deeds. 
Nature  must  be  found  in  her  simplicity.  The  rude 
elements  must  be  made  familiar.  These  were  the 
thoughts  which  lay  at  the  bottom  of  that  Christian 
monasticism  which  played  an  important  part  in  the 
early  Church,  and  extended  down  to  the  Reformation, 
and  still  holds  undisputed  sway  in  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church. 

2.  The  Christian  Use  of  Monasticism.  Christianity 
found  monasticism  already  prevalent  in  the  Nazarites 
of  Palestine  and  the  Therai3euto3  of  Egypt,  and  it  is 
not  strange  that,  in  an  age  of  great  social  corruption, 
which  overspread  all  pagan  territory,  many  Christians 
should  see  in  the  separate  life  a  relief  from  danger. 


MONASTICISM.  115 

Persecution  favored  the  tendency  towards  monasticism. 
Exile  was  only  another  name  for  a  secluded  life.  Many 
Christians  went  voluntarily  into  remote  regions;  dwelt 
in  caves  or  groves;  spent  the  day  in  w^orks  of  charity, 
and  much  of  the  night  in  vigils;  and  courted  nature 
in  her  wildest  moods.  The  first  monastic  stage  was 
voluntary  solitude,  without  any  movement  towards  a 
separate  order.  It  was  the  individual  mind,  looking 
for  spiritual  relief,  but  with  no  purpose  to  introduce  a 
new  departure  in  ecclesiastical  practice.  The  next 
stage  was  a  habit  of  removal  to  certain  regions,  where 
the  monks  lived  within  reach  of  each  other.  The  third 
stage  was  the  sanction  and  regular  organization  of 
orders,  which  took  full  shape  in  the  Benedictines  and 
gimilar  fraternities.  The  monks  took  three  vows  upon 
themselves:  perpetual  fidelity  to  the  life  and  order; 
obedience  to  the  abbot,  or  head  of  the  monastery;  and 
chastity  and  poverty.  A  number  of  the  fathers  and 
writers  Jed  a  monastic  life,  but  without  advocacy  of 
a  separate  order.  The  tendency  grew  with  the  times. 
The  Old  Testament  was  searched  for  support.  Elijah 
and  kindred  spirits  in  Jewish  history,  and  John  the 
Baptist,  were  brought  in  to  support  the  monastic  taste. 
Egypt  became  a  favorite  place  for  the  monks.  Rufinus 
declared  that  there  were  nearly  as  many  monks  in  the 
deserts  as  people  in  the  cities.  Montalembert  says: 
"  It  was  a  land  of  emigration  of  towns  to  the  desert, 
of  civilization  to  simplicity,  of  noise  to  silence,  of  cor- 
ruption to  innocence.  The  current  once  begun,  floods 
of  men,  women,  and  children  threw  themselves  into  it, 
and  flowed  thither  during  a  century  with  irresistible 
force." 

3.   Notable  Examples.    Paul   of  Thebes,  in  Upper 
Egypt,  was  the  first  Christian  hermit.     He  lived  dur- 


116  SHORT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

ing  the  persecution  under  Decius.  He  is  said  to  have 
withdrawn  to  a  distant  Egyptian  cave  v/hen  twenty- 
two  years  of  age,  and  to  have  lived  there  until  a.d. 
340.  Anthony,  who  followed  in  Paul's  footsteps,  lived 
for  a  long  time  in  extreme  poverty  in  the  Egyptian 
desert.  The  fame  of  the  life  of  these  two  men  went 
into  distant  lands,  and  their  self-denial  was  imitated 
by  many  people  in  the  countries  lying  around  the 
eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  Pillar  Saints 
constituted  a  separate  class.  St.  Simeon  was  the 
founder  of  the  group.  He  stood  upon  the  top  of  a 
pillar,  and  spent  his  life  between  leaning  on  a  frail  rail- 
ing and  standing  erect.  The  height  of  the  pillar  was 
increased  as  he  advanced  in  virtue.  Tennyson  puts  in 
his  mouth  the  following  confession,  after  he  had  spent 
many  years  in  this  life  of  torture ; 

*'  0  Lord,  Lord, 
Thou  knowest  I  bore  this  belter  at  the  first, 
For  I  was  strong  and  hale  of  body  then; 
And  though  my  teeth,  which  now  are  dropped  away, 
Would  chatter  with  the  cold,  and  all  my  beard 
Was  tagged  with  icy  fringes  in  the  moon, 
I  drowned  the  whoopings  of  the  owl  with  sound 
Of  pious  hymns  and  psalms,  and  sometimes  saw 
An  angel  stand  and  watch  me,  as  I  sang. 
Now  am  I  feeble  grown  ;  my  end  draws  nigh — 
I  hope  my  end  draws  nigh :  half  deaf  I  am, 
So  that  I  scarce  can  hear  the  people  hum 
About  the  column's  base  ;  and  almost  blind, 
And  scarce  can  recognize  the  fields  I  know. 
And  both  my  thighs  are  rotted  with  the  dew, 
Yet  cease  I  not  to  clamor  and  to  cry, 
While  my  stiff  spine  can  hold  my  weary  head. 
Till  all  my  limbs  drop  piecemeal  from  the  stone: 
Have  mercy,  mercy ;  take  away  my  sin  I" 


Chapter  XXVIII. 
the  age  of  geegoey  the  geeat. 

1.  Growth  of  the  Roman  Episcopate..  The  march  of 
the  Roman  bishop  towards  priority  throughout  the  Chris- 
tian world  was  steady.  The  divisions  of  the  Eastern 
Empire,  the  decline  of  moral  life,  the  universal  spread  of 
controversy,  and,  particularly,  the  pre-eminent  ability 
of  several  of  the  bishops  of  Rome,  were  calculated  to 
advance  the  claims  of  that  patriarchate  above  all  others. 
The  bishop  Leo  I.  was  a  man  of  strong  intellect,  and 
he  did  miich  to  clothe  himself  with  power  and  pres- 
tige. But  the  most  eminent  incumbent  of  the  Roman 
episcopate  was  Gregory,  who  was  called  the  Great, 
and  ruled  a.p.  590-604.  Under  him  every  department 
of  the  priesthood  and  the  episcopacy  advanced  in 
strength.  His  claims,  artfully  disguised,  were  of  the 
most  lofty  kind. 

2.  Gregory's  Character  was  of  striking  quality.  He 
was  versatile,  and  strong  in  everything  he  touched. 
In  the  development  of  the  hierarchical  idea,  in  theol- 
ogy, liturgical  literature,  pastoral  oversight,  monas- 
ticism,  and  missions,  he  w^as  a  master.  His  hand  was  felt 
in  the  whole  field  of  the  ecclesiastical  life  of  his  day. 
Born  at  Rome  (a.d.  540)  and  descended  from  an  an- 
cient patrician  family,  he  had  all  the  advantages  which 
wealth  and  education  could  bring.  His  parents  de- 
signed him  for  service  in  the  state.  But  he  turned  his 
attention  to  the  Church,  and  advanced  rapidly.      Yet 


118  SHORT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

he  showed  no  disposition  to  hasten  matters.  He  pos- 
sessed the  virtue  of  patience  in  a  high  degree.  Gregory, 
after  his  father's  death,  founded  six  cloisters,  and  occu- 
pied one  himself.  He  dedicated  himself  to  a  life  of  self- 
denial.  He  became  deacon  of  the  bishop  Pelagius,  and 
was  sent  as  his  representative  to  the  court  of  Constan- 
tinople. He  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Book  of  Job, 
and  pursued  his  studies  with  great  energy.  On  his 
return  to  Rome,  and  the  death  of  the  bishop  Pelagius, 
he  was  chosen  to  succeed  him.  He  declined  the  office 
at  first,  but  afterwards  accepted  it,  but  apparently  by 
pressure.  Towards  the  emperor  he  manifested  the  pro- 
foundest  respect,  probably  with  a  view  to  gaining  by 
yielding.  He  called  himself  "  servus  servorum  Dei  " — 
"  servant  of  the  Lord's  servants."  He  devoted  himself 
to  the  purification  of  the  life  of  the  Church  and  the 
enforcement  of  monastic  discipline.  He  was  especially 
active  in  his  encouragement  of  missions.  He  organized 
the  Anglo-Saxon  and  other  missions,  and  sought  to 
send  the  gospel  into  every  part  of  Europe.  Under  him 
the  authority  of  the  Roman  bishop  advanced  far  be- 
yond its  former  dimensions.  He  created  the  papacy  of 
history.  He  preserved  amicable  relations  with  the  em- 
peror, though  all  the  while  holding  firmly  his  ecclesi- 
astical independence. 


Chapter  XXIX. 

THE    EXPANSION    OF    CHRISTIANITY. 

1.  The  Evangelization  of  the  Nations  continued  with 
unabated  zeal.  Whether  in  persecution,  or  after  the 
liberty  given  by  Constantine,  the  work  of  missions 
was  carried  on  with  equal  fervor.  There  were  three 
such  fields:  1.  The  poor  within  the  central  regions  of 
the  empire;  2.  The  population  of  such  farther  provinces 
as  were  a  firm  part  of  the  dominions;  and,  3.  Those 
more  remote  tribes  which  were  hostile  to  Rome,  and 
were  awaiting  a  good  opportunity  to  satisfy  their 
hunger  for  conquest  by  feasting  on  the  dying  empire. 
The  Church  extended  its  boundaries  by  exile,  and  all 
the  other  means  employed  to  destroy  it.  Both  in 
Rome  and  in  the  larger  provincial  towns,  the  conflict 
betv/een  the  gospel  and  pagan  literature  was  intense 
and  uninterrupted.  The  doctrines  of  Jesus  gained 
steadily  on  the  most  finished  products  of  pagan  thought. 
Wordsworth's  description  of  the  conquest  of  the  mis- 
sionary over  the  Druids  of  Britain  applies  equally  well 
to  the  whole  battle-field  of  three  continents: 

"  Haughty  the  Bard — can  these  weak  doctrines  blight 
His  transports  ?  wither  his  heroic  strain  ? 
But  all  shall  be  fulfilled.     The  Julian  spear 
A  way  first  opened ;  and,  with  Eoman  chains, 
The  tidings  come  of  Jesus  crucified; 
They  came — they  spread — the  weak,  the  suffering,  hear ; 
Receive  the  faith  and  in  the  hope  abide." 


120         SHORT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHtJKCH. 

When  Athanasius  was  banished  from  Alexandria  to 
northern  Gaul,  not  only  did  the  young  society  in  the 
latter  country  enjoy  the  presence  of  an  heroic  exam- 
ple, but  the  exile  himself  began  his  organizing  work, 
and  established  the  diocese  of  Treves,  at  that  time 
the  capital  of  Gaul.  The  general  expansion  Avent  on 
rapidly  everywhere.  Indeed,  during  the  period  of 
suffering  the  only  safety  to  the  Christians  lay  in  their 
distance  from  the  persecuting  centres.  Tertullian  said 
defiantly  to  the  whole  Roman  world  :  "  We  are  of 
yesterday,  yet  we  have  filled  your  empire,  your  cities, 
your  islands,  your  castles,  your  towns,  your  assemblies, 
your  very  camps,  your  tribes,  your  companies,  your 
palaces,  your  senate.  Your  forum  and  your  temples 
alone  are  left  you!" 

2.  Eastward.  Antioch  was  the  centre  from  which 
the  light  of  the  gospel  radiated  eastward  into  the  dis- 
tant parts  of  Asia,  and  westward  through  Asia  Minor. 
The  pathway  reached  from  the  shore  of  the  ^gean 
Sea  to  the  west  of  China — a  longer  line  of  march 
than  Alexander  had  made.  Jerusalem  lost  its  hold  as 
a  centre  of  ecclesiastical  power,  and  its  spiritual  do- 
minion was  divided  between  Antioch,  in  the  north,  and 
Alexandria,  in  the  south.  Cappadocia,  and  the  entire 
coast  of  the  Euxine  Sea  east  of  the  Dardanelles  and 
the  Bosphorus,  were  early  a  mission  field.  Colchis, 
Iberia,  and  Georgia  were  overspread  with  missionary 
laborers.  Leontius,  bishop  of  Csesarea,  in  Cappadocia, 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Armenia  a.d.  302,  with  the 
rank  of  patriarch.  The  Bible  was  translated  into  Ar- 
menian, and  a  large  Christian  literature  was  created. 
In  the  third  century  Persia  had  so  far  become  evan- 
gelized that  Ctesiphon  became  the  seat  of  a  flourish- 
ing society,  and  a  point  of  departure  for  the  expansion 


THE   EXPANSION    OF    CHRISTIANITY.  121 

of  Christianity  fartlier  east.  The  doctrines  of  Zoroas- 
ter were  attacked  by  a  converted  magian,  Mobed,  who, 
in  a  special  work,  held  np  to  his  countrymen  the  excel- 
lence of  Christianity.  He  suffered  martyrdom,  a.d.  300, 
but  was  followed  by  laborers  of  equal  ardor.  Edessa,  in 
Persia,  became  an  important  centre  of  Christian  learn- 
ing. The  Nestorian  Christians,  who  were  compelled 
to  leave  the  Roman  Empire,  took  refuge  here,  and  laid 
the  foundations  of  a  rich  and  influential  Syrian  litera- 
ture. Missionary  operations  were  carried  on  along  all 
the  lines  of  Eastern  travel.  From  the  valley  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  the  indications  are  strong  that 
missionaries  went  far  into  the  interior  of  India. 

3.  Africa.  The  Church  in  Africa  developed  Avith 
amazing  raj^idity.  Alexandria  was  the  literary  centre 
for  the  evangelization  of  the  entire  delta  of  the  Nile. 
Missions  were  planted  along  either  bank,  and  soon  ex- 
tended far  up  towards  the  first  cataract,  at  Philse,  and 
to  the  oases  on  either  side  of  the  river.  Carthage,  the 
ancient  Punic  capital,  was  intimately  connected  with 
western  Christendom.  Many  Christians  came  to  both 
these  cities,  but  in  larger  numbers  to  Alexandria,  from 
distant  regions,  where  they  became  acquainted  with 
the  theology  and  life  of  the  Church,  and  bore  back 
again  the  fruits  of  their  study  and  observation.  The 
whole  of  proconsular  Africa,  including  Getulia,  Mauri- 
tania, and  Numidia,  whose  western  bounds  were  washed 
by  the  waves  of  the  Atlantic,  was  evangelized  by  Ro- 
man and  Carthaginian  Christians.  The  great  number 
of  bishops  in  the  third  century  dependent  on  the  pa- 
triarchate of  Carthage  furnishes  strong  evidence  of 
the  extent  to  which  Christianity  had  been  propagated 
in  the  whole  of  Western  Africa,  and  of  its  strong  hold 
upon  the  people.     At  the  Synod  of  Labes,  near  Car- 


122  SHORT    HISTORY    OP   THE    EARLY   CHURCH. 

thage,  A.D.  240  or  242,  ninety  bishops  were  present, 
while  two  hundred  and  seventy  bishops  signed  the  con- 
chisions  of  the  Council  of  Carthage,  a.d.  308.  Abys- 
sinia was  converted  through  two  young  men,  Frumen- 
tius  and  Nedesius,  who  alone  survived  the  massacre  of 
the  members  of  a  scientific  expedition  conducted  by 
Meropius,  a  Syrian  philosopher.  About  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century  a  translation  of  the  Bible  was  made 
from  the  received  Greek  Testament  of  the  Alexan- 
drian Church  into  the  old  language  of  Abyssinia.  The 
Abyssinian  Church  has  always  remained  in  connection 
with  Alexandria,  its  boast  being:  "We  drink  from  the 
fountain  of  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria."  Feeble  as 
Abyssinian  Christianity  is,  it  has  preserved  its  exist- 
ence, through  an  unbroken  succession  of  Christian 
governors,  from  the  fourth  century  to  the  nineteenth. 
With  all  its  error,  it  may  in  truth  be  called  the  Wal- 
densian  Church  of  the  Switzerland  of  Africa. 

4.  The  Balkan  Peninsula.  The  central  field  of  in- 
terest was  the  continent  of  Europe.  Christian  mission- 
aries continued  the  labors  of  Paul,  and  carried  the 
gospel  througli  Mojsia  to  the  Danube.  Macedonia  had 
numerous  Christum  societies,  while  even  Illyricum  had 
two  dioceses.  By  a.d.  310  three  bishops  lived  in  Phil- 
ippopolis,  in  Thrace.  The  contact  of  the  Goths  north 
of  the  Danube,  in  Dacia,  with  Christianity,  was  a  most 
important  event.  It  was  the  opening  of  a  new  field 
of  evangelistic  labor,  and  had  the  important  effect  of 
bringing  the  gosp-l  into  relation  with  the  many  Teu- 
tonic tribes  which  constituted  the  eastern  Germany  of 
those  times.  A  Gothic  bishop,  Theophilus,  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Nicene  Council.  It  was,  however,  through 
the  labors  of  Ulfilas,  a  Gothic  convert  to  Christianity, 
that  the  gospel  spread  widely  among  his  people.     He 


THE    EXPANSION    OF    CHRISTIANITY.  123 

invented  the  Gothic  alphabet,  brought  the  Goths  into 
literary  relations  with  Roman  culture,  and  opened  up 
the  pathway  for  Christian  truth  into  all  parts  of  the 
Ostrogothic  territory.  In  Greece,  it  was  not  Athens, 
but  Corinth,  which  became  the  ecclesiastical  centre  of 
operations.  Athens,  however,  constituted  a  diocese, 
and  the  third  bishop  resident  there  suffered  martyr- 
dom A.D.  179.  Aquileia,  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  became  a  point  of  influence  for  the  propagation 
of  Christianity  among  the  peoples  of  the  eastern  Alps. 

5.  Rome  was  the  heart  and  hand  of  a  vigorous  and 
aggressive  Christianity.  The  entire  Italian  peninsula 
had  grown  into  episcopates.  The  first  provincial  synod 
was  A.D.  303,  but  before  this  there  had  been  seventeen 
smaller  synods  and  councils,  attended  by  bishops  of  all 
Italy.  Rome  converted  all  Spain  and  Gaul  into  a  mis- 
sionary field.  The  Roman  bishop  was  supreme.  As 
early  as  the  end  of  the  second  century  Christian  socie- 
ties existed  throughout  Spain,  and  by  the  beginning  of 
the  fourth  century  churches  had  been  established  in 
all  the  Gallic  provinces.  Vienne  was  an  episcopal  resi- 
dence, A.D.  118;  Lugdunum  (Lyons),  about  a.d.  179; 
and  Treves,  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century. 

6.  Germany.  Christianity  was  at  first  communicated 
to  Germany,  most  likely,  by  the  soldiers  in  the  Roman 
army.  Where  colonies  were  planted,  as  a  provincial 
centre  of  Roman  authority,  the  gospel  soon  acquired  a 
foothold.  Colonia  (Cologne)  became  a  bishopric  about 
the  end  of  the  third  century.  At  the  same  time  the 
gospel  was  introduced  into  Rh?etia  by  the  bishop  Nar- 
cissus. Christianity  was  also  planted  far  in  the  north, 
along  the  coast  of  the  North  Sea.  The  apostle  to  Scan- 
dinavia was  Ansgar,  who  was  born  a.d.  801,  and  whose 
remarkable  triumphs  belong  to  the  mediaeval  period. 


124  SilOKT    HISTORY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

7.  Britain.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  gospel 
entered  Britain  at  an  early  period,  or  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  second  century.  Rome,  under  Julius  Caesar, 
had  conquered  the  country,  and  brought  it  into  close 
relationship  with  Italy.  In  the  Council  of  Aries,  a.d. 
314,  three  bishops  from  Britain  signed  the  decrees — 
Eborius,  of  Eboracum  (York),  Restitutus,  of  Londunum 
(London),  and  Colonia  Londiniensium  (Lincoln).  The 
location  of  these  bishops  proves  that  the  Avhole  of  Eng- 
land was  organized  into  a  complete  ecclesiastical  sys- 
tem. Succat,  the  original  name  of  St.  Patrick,  or  Pa- 
tricius,  Av^as  born  about  a.d.  400,  of  Christian  parents, 
and  was  originally  a  slave.  He  devoted  himself  to  the 
evangelization  of  Ireland.  Through  his  influence  so- 
cieties were  planted,  schools  were  organized,  Christian 
literature  was  cultivated,  and  missionaries  went  out 
from  that  island  to  the  Continent.  Columbanus,  with 
twelve  companions,  went  to  France,  a.d.  580,  and  be- 
gan a  thorough  evangelistic  work  in  the  neglected 
parts  of  Gaul.  Gallus  made  Gaul  the  field  of  his  la- 
bors. Willibrod,  an  Englishman,  went  to  Ireland  for 
his  Christian  education,  and  then  gave  his  life  to  mis- 
sionary labors  among  the  Frisians,  along  the  coast 
of  the  North  Sea.  Boniface,  born  near  Exeter,  about 
A.D.  680,  went  to  Germany  and  spent  his  life  in  that 
country. 


Chapter  XXX. 

THE    CLOSE    OF   THE    EARLY    PERIOD. 

1.  This  Rapid  Extension  of  Christianity  was  the  most 
notable  characteristic  of  the  border-land  between  the 
early  Church  and  the  mediaeval  period.  Missions  were 
promoted  by  the  very  growth  of  the  papacy.  The  bish- 
ops saw  that  their  hopes  of  territorial  power  could 
be  realized  in  the  West  and  North  rather  than  in  the 
East,  and  each  strove  to  surpass  his  predecessor  in  the 
good  work.  Missionaries  and  church  officers  were 
sent  out  from  Rome  with  authority  to  plant  missions, 
build  up  a  literature,  and  indoctrinate  the  people  in 
the  truths  of  Christianity.  In  many  instances  these 
attempts  failed,  the  missionaries  were  killed,  and  the 
old  heathenism  of  the  provinces  triumphed  over  the 
young  Christianity.  But  the  tide  of  religious  truth 
was  too  strong  for  final  resistance.  New  efforts  were 
made,  and  finally  the  old  idols  were  removed,  the  tem- 
ples were  destroyed,  and  Christian  chapels  were  erected 
in  their  place. 

2.  Scholarship.  Christianity  carried  with  it  the  dis- 
position to  create  a  literature.  The  missionary  was 
often  a  man  of  ardent  theological  tastes,  and  immedi- 
ately began  to  adapt  the  growing  literature  of  Chris- 
tianity to  the  new  people.  Schools,  as  at  Fulda,  in 
Germany,  were  at  once  organized.  Here  the  Script- 
ures were  copied,  elementary  books  were  written,  and 
small  libraries  were  collected.     Centres  of  theoloe:ical 


126  SHORT   HISTOKY    OF   THE    EAKLY    CHUECH. 

learniDg  were  thus  formed.  The  development  of  a 
literary  taste  was  never  interrupted,  even  amid  the 
convulsions  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Christian  pen 
and  school  were  never  disturbed  by  the  storms  of  war- 
fare with  false  faiths. 

3.  The  Venerable  Bede  represented  the  patient  and 
scholarly  class  of  his  whole  age.  He  was  born  in  Dur- 
ham, England,  about  a.d.  673,  spent  his  laborious  life 
of  a  century  at  the  monastery  of  Wearmouth  and  Yar- 
row, and  reared  a  literary  monument  of  forty  different 
works,  twenty-live  of  which  were  on  Biblical  subjects. 
History  and  kindred  topics  were  treated  in  the  re- 
maining fifteen.  He  died  in  great  joy,  singing 
psalms  with  his  pupils,  immediately  after  concludmg 
his  Anglo-Saxon  translation  of  John's  gospel.  Words- 
worth, in  a  beautiful  fancy,  thus  rebukes  the  idler  by 
presenting  the  picture  of  the  toiling  Bede  : 

"  But  what  if  one,  through  grove  or  flowery  mode, 
Indulging  thus  at  will  the  creeping  feet 
Of  a  voluptuous  indolence,  should  meet 
Thy  hovering  shade,  0  Venerable  Bede ! 
The  saint,  the  scholar,  from  a  circle  freed 
Of  toil  stupendous,  in  a  hallowed  seat 
Of  learning,  where  thou  heardst  the  billows  beat 
On  a  wild  coast,  rough  monitors  to  feed 
Perpetual  industry.    Sublime  Recluse  ! 
The  i^ccreant  soul,  that  dares  to  shun  the  debt 
Imposed  on  human  kind,  must  first  forget 
Thy  diligence,  thy  unrelaxing  use. 
Of  a  long  life ;  and,  in  the  hour  of  death. 
The  last  dear  service  of  thy  passing  breath." 

4.  Doctrines.  Christian  doctrines  assumed,  by  the 
close  of  the  early  period,  a  settled  condition.  The 
Church  had  elaborated  its  theological  standards,  while 
its  creeds  were  now  repeated  from  the  deserts  of  Africa 


THE    CLOSE    OF    THE    EAKLY    PERIOD.  127 

to  the  forests  of  Britain  and  the  shores  of  the  North 
Sea.  The  Uxrger  heresies  had  still  a  constituency,  but 
were  in  rapid  process  of  disintegration.  They  throve 
only  in  the  remoter  provinces,  more  especially  in  the 
East,  and  were  alienated  from  the  sympathy  of  the 
great  body  of  Christian  people  in  all  lands.  When 
the  Middle  Ages  began,  other  controversies  arose,  which 
were  largely  speculative,  and  had  but  little  relation  to 
the  Arian  and  other  great  struggles. 

5.  Roman  Centralization  constantly  gained  strength. 
Church  offices  multiplied  rapidly,  and  the  close  of  the 
early  period  was  the  signal  for  larger  measures  for  Ro- 
man primacy.  The  bishops  of  Rome  were  the  real 
rulers  of  southern  Europe,  from  the  Constantinian 
dynasty  to  the  reign  of  Charlemagne.  The  great 
wealth  which  had  been  at  the  command  of  the  empire 
was  now  largely  diverted  into  ecclesiastical  channels, 
and  was  used  to  build  vast  churches,  organize  missions, 
support  a  rapidly  growing  clergy,  found  schools,  and 
create  a  literature. 

6.  Superstition  was  tlie  darkest  color  in  the  picture  of 
the  Church  at  this  transitional  period.  Miraculous  pow- 
ers were  attributed  to  the  overthrow  of  the  dust  of  the 
saints.  The  places  where  they  died  were  hallowed,  and 
were  regarded  as  most  fit  sites  for  stately  sacred  build- 
ings. The  saintly  calendar  increased  rapidly.  Festivals 
were  organized  in  memory  of  each  one  who  had  risen 
above  the  surface  of  his  times  as  an  exemplar  of  piety, 
devotion,  and  sacrifice.  The  condition  of  the  people  may 
account  in  large  measure  for  the  prevalence  and  force 
of  the  tendency  towards  superstition.  When  Constan- 
tine  made  Christianity  the  state  religion  the  many 
millions  of  the  Roman  empire  were  thrust  upon  the 
Church  for  training  and  development.     The  burden 


128  SHORT   IIISTOEY    OF   THE    EARLY    CHURCH. 

was  altogether  too  great.  The  people  of  the  centres 
were  still  beneath  the  spell  of  the  pagan  traditions  and 
gross  superstitions  which  had  grown  out  of  polytheis- 
tic systems.  The  populations  of  the  provinces  were  in 
even  worse  plight.  Their  ancestral  faiths  were  a  rude 
conglomeration  of  fetichism.  There  was  not  even  a 
social  elevation  on  which  to  build.  It  is  not  a  matter 
of  wonder,  therefore,  that  when  such  heterogeneous  and 
untrained  multitudes  were  thrust  suddenly  upon  the 
Church,  for  its  care,  the  superstitious  habit  should  be 
slow  to  yield  to  the  new  Christian  conditions.  When 
the  Church  passed  into  the  darkness  of  the  Middle 
Ages  the  question  was,  could  it  endure  the  ordeal  of 
vast  wealth,  superstition,  and  clerical  assumption? 
When  the  Reformation  came  the  question  was  an- 
swered. Much  was  lost  during  the  long  night,  but 
light  came  at  last.  The  power  of  the  Church  to  purify 
itself  is  the  greatest  proof  of  its  divine  origin,  and  the 
clearest  prophecy  of  its  certain  conquest  of  the  world. 


INDEX. 


Abyssinia,  converted  through  Frnmcntius  and  Nedesius,  122. 

Africa,  Western,  evidence  of  extent  of  propagation  of  Christianity,  121. 

Alexandria,  literary  centre  for  evangelization,  121. 

Anthony  the  hermit,  UG. 

Anthropology',  pagan  and  Christian,  82. 

Antiochian  school,  vague  teachings  of,  57. 

Apocryphal  writings :  apostolical  constitutions,  76 ;  chief  sources  of  pro- 
duction of,  75  ;  field  of,  75 ;  particular  books,  76 ;  sibylline  oracles,  76. 

Apollinarism,  60,  61. 

Apologists:  two  classes, 39 ;  Greek, 40;  Latin, 40;  defence, 41;  triumph, 42. 

Apostates,  management  of,  98. 

Apostles,  the :  apostolical  constitutions  claimed  to  have  been  written  by, 
77 ;  deacons  assistants  to,  28 ;  elements  of  Christian  schools  in  days 
of,  43 ;  evangelists  assistants  to,  28  ;  fervent  in  communicating  the 
gospel,  4 ;  fields  of  work  of,  5 ;  uncertainty  as  to  fields  of  work  of,  8 ; 
James,  brother  of  Christ,  7;  James  the  Elder  suffers  martyrdom,  7; 
John,  probable  fields  of  labor  of,  7 ;  John,  sketch  of,  7 ;  minor  labors 
of,  8 ;  of  humble  origin,  9 ;  Paul,  missionary  tours  of,  G ;  Paul  the 
great  apostle,  6  ;  Peter  possibly  visited  Rome,  6  ;  Peter  represented 
Jewish  type  of  Christianity,  5 ;  Peter,  evangeliatic  tour  of,  5 ;  scene 
of  the  labors  of,  5-8 ;  were  prophets,  28. 

Arianism,  history  of,  59. 

Arian  strife,  57. 

Arias,  57  ,•  representative  of  heterodoxy,  59. 

Athanasius,  representative  of  orthodoxy,  59. 

Augustine :  life  of,  62  ;  theology  of,  62. 

Baptism  :  sacrament  of,  82  ;  infant,  83. 

Basilides,  the  Gnostic,  31. 

Bede,  the  Venerable  :  sketch  of,  126  ;  his  translation  of  John's  gospel,  126. 

Benefactions,  record  of  details  of,  kept,  100. 

Bishops :  and  elders,  28 ;  powers  of  the,  88  ;  Roman,  90. 

Books,  room  for,  in  churches,  called  Phrontisterion,  or  thinking-room,  101. 

Britain,  entry  of  the  gospel  into,  124. 

Callistus,  corrupt  measures  of,  cause  Novatian  schism,  67. 

Canon  :  New  Testament,  71 ;  Old  Testament,  70 ;  final  settlement,  72. 

Canonical  books :  Council  of  Carthage  adopt  list  of,  72 ;  Council  of  Hippo 


130  INDEX. 

declare  list  of,  72  ;  Council  of  Trent  include  Apocrypha  in  list  of,  72  ; 
first  list  of,  given  by  Muratori  fragment,  71 ',  no  cliange  in,  for  eleven 
centuries,  72  ;  Peshito  omits  some  of  the,  71. 

Carthage:  Western  Christendom,  121;  patriarchate  of,  121. 

Catacombs,  the  :  Ifesio's  explorations  of,  108  ;  Church  in  the,  106  ;  discov- 
ery of  Christian,  107 ;  De  Rossi's  explorations  of,  108;  frescoes  in,  109  ; 
historical  suggestions  of,  112 ;  inscriptions  in,  112;  representations 
of  Christ  in,  111 ;  Roman,  106  ;  symbolism  of,  teach  orthodoxy,  110. 

Catechumens  :  severely  disciplined,  97  ;  three  classes  of,  98. 

Celibacy,  clerical,  no  support  for,  in  catacombs,  113. 

Cerinthus,  the  Gnostic,  30. 

Charges  against  Christianity,  37. 

Children,  pagan  estimate  of,  13. 

Christ :  apocryphal  accounts  of,  76,  77 ;  completion  of  his  personal  minis- 
try, 2 ;  controversies  on,  57-66 ;  divinity  of,  opposed  by  Jews  and 
pagans,  57  ;  divinity  of,  upheld  by  Council  of  Nicaea,  66 ;  eternal  Son- 
ship  of,  57  ;  representations  of,  in  catacombs,  111 ;  two  natures  of,  66. 

Christian  defenders,  the,  39. 

Christian  life  and  usages,  101-105. 

Christian  worship,  23,  24. 

Christianity :  attacks  on,  compel  Christians  to  study  groundwork  of,  42 ; 
attitude  of  Judaism  towards,  15;  Celsus,  Porphyry,  and  Hierocles 
strong  assailants  of,  36;  close  of  the  early  period  of,  125-128;  Con- 
stantine  declares  himself  a  convert  to,  46  ;  contact  of  the  Goths  with, 
122;  disseminated  by  Roman  highways,  12;  doctrines  of,  126;  Ebion- 
ism  and  Gnosticism  attempt  to  make  terms  with,  29 ;  edict  of  Con- 
stantine  tolerating,  47 ;  elevation  of  woman  by,  26;  extends  help  to 
the  sutferiug,  25,  26;  final  efforts  to  destroy,  22;  general  charges 
against,  37;  Greek  defenders  of,  40;  grounds  of  Roman  hostility  to, 
20;  growing  importance  of,  35;  heroism  of  first  preachers  of,  9;  hos- 
tility of  Jews  to,  19:  hostility  of  pagan  authors  to,  36;  humane  spirit 
of,  applied  to  slaves,  26  ;  impulse  to  literature  of,  101 ;  its  relief  of  the 
poor,  25;  Julian's  measures  to  siippress,  51;  Latin  defenders  of,  40; 
liberation  of,  under  Constantine,  46  ;  line  of  defence  of,  41 ;  opposition 
to,  in  Roman  Empire,  12 ;  outcome  of  pagan  attack  on,  38 ;  pagan 
alarm  at  bases  of,  35 ;  persecutions  leave  it  more  powerful,  35 ;  planted 
along  the  coast  of  the  North  Sea,  123;  rapid  extension  of,  125;  reha- 
bilitation of  paganism  on  plan  of,  by  Julian,  52, 53 ;  results  of  theolog- 
ical controversies  favorable  to,  65 ;  scholarship  of,  125  ;  social  revolu- 
tion accomplished  by,  26 ;  transition  to,  from  paganism,  a  thorough 
revolution,  100;  triumph  of  defenders  of,  42;  two  classes  of  defenders 
of,  39 ;  unselfishness  of  early,  25,  26. 

Christians:  attacks  on  the  Church  compel  them  to  study  groundwork  of 
Christianity,  42 ;  antliropology  of,  82 ;  boldly  discuss  great  themes, 
78;  community  of  goods  among,  effect  of  charity,  4;  cosmology  of, 
82 ;  domestic  life  of,  101 ;  discussions  on  the  Logos  by,  80, 81 ;  general 
agreement  among,  as  to  doctrines,  78 ;  Greek  and  Roman,  dilfercnce 


INDEX.  131 

between,  78;  persecutions  of,  19-22;  practical  life  of,  4,  25,  100;  re- 
lapse of,  into  paganism,  54;  their  relief  of  the  poor,  25;  formulation 
of  doctrines,  G5;  torture  of,  22;  unselfishness  of,  25,  26. 

Cliristology,  development  of,  80,  81. 

Clmrch,  the  :  Abyssinian,  122  ;  bishops  and  elders  of,  28,  87,  90  ;  buildings 
for  worship,  95 ;  carefid  training  of  young  in  spiritual  life  of,  97 ; 
catechumens  of,  97;  charitable  spirit  of,  100;  condition  of,  in  Con- 
stantinople, 92 ;  conquest  of,  by  the  state,  through  Constantino,  48 ; 
constitution  of,  partly  of  divine  ordering,  27;  danger  to,  under  Con- 
stantine,  48;  deacons  of,  28,  86;  direct  favors  of  Constantine  to,  49; 
divine  and  human  elements  in  organization  of,  27 ;  divine  superin- 
tendence of,  1;  doctrine  of,  82;  each,  a  centre  of  knowledge,  101; 
evangelists  of,  28;  beneficence,  100  ;  growth  of,  22;  in  the  catacombs, 
106;  in  the  darkness  of  the  Middle  Ages,  128;  increase  of  offices  in, 
86  ;  liberation  of,  under  Constantine,  46  ;  minor  clergj'  of,  86;  mission 
of  the  historian  of,  2  ;  Montanistic  reform  in,  54-56;  of  North  Africa 
involved  in  Donatist  schism,  68;  obstacles  to,  throughout  Roman  Em- 
pire, 12 ;  officers  of,  87 ;  organization  of,  3 ;  period  of  early,  one  of 
intense  literary  fertility,  71 ;  permanent  officers  of,  28 ;  political  life 
and,  46 ;  power  of,  to  purify  itself,  128 ;  revolution  in  government  of, 
86;  Koman  centralization  in,  127;  of  Rome,  claim  to  pre-eminence 
of,  91 ;  of  Rome,  the  original  Italian,  89 ;  sacraments  of,  82 ;  super- 
stition in,  127 ;  temporary  officers  of,  27 ;  the  Western,  inclined  to  use 
images,  96. 

Clergy:  the  greater,  87;  the  minor,  86. 

Close  of  the  early  period,  125-128. 

Constantine  the  emperor:  claims  the  right  to  supervise  religion,  47;  dan- 
ger to  the  Church  from  his  course,  48 ;  declares  himself  a  Christian, 
46;  edict  of,  tolerating  Christianity,  47;  favors  the  Church,  49;  di- 
vision of  empire,  50;  liberation  of  Church.  46;  vision  of,  46,  47. 

Constantinople  :  called  New  Rome,  91 ;  condition  of  the  Church  in,  92. 

Controversies,  64 ;  on  Christ,  57-59 ;  later,  60-66 ;  other,  64, 65 ;  Pelagian,  63. 

Corinth  an  ecclesiastical  centre,  123. 

Cosmology,  a  fruitful  field  of  speculation,  82. 

Council :  of  Carthage,  adopt  list  of  canonical  books,  72 ;  of  Chalcedon,  de- 
termines union  of  two  natures  in  Christ,  66;  of  Constantinople,  con- 
demns Arians,  59 ;  of  Elvira,  forbids  use  of  images,  96 ;  of  Hippo, 
declare  exact  canon,  72;  of  Nicaja,  first  formula  of  Christian  truth 
established  by,  78 ;  of  Nicaia,  passes  Nicene  Creed,  58  ;  of  Nicasa,  up- 
liolds  divinity  of  Christ,  66;  of  Nicaea,  word  "metropolitan"  first 
appears  at,  89 ;  canon  of  Trent,  includes  Apocrypha,  72. 

Creed,  Nicene,  58. 

Defenders  of  Christianity,  two  classes  of,  39. 

Depravity  of  paganism,  13. 

Discipline :  of  catechumens,  severe,  97;  reaction  against  loose,  54. 

Divine  character,  foundation  of  all  theology,  78. 


132  INDEX. 

I'^nrly  period,  close  of  tlic,  125-128. 

Eastci-ii  Church,  tithes  the  standard  of  annual  beneficence,  100. 

Ebiouisra  disposed  to  make  terms  with  Christianity,  29. 

Ecclesiastical  discipline,  97-99;  ecclesiastical  government,  86-92. 

Ecclesiastical  organization:  deacons,  28;  divine  and  human  elements  in, 

27 ;  permanent  officers,  28 ;  temporary  officers,  27. 
Ecclesiastical  polity,  measures  taken  for  a  unifying,  3. 
Epistolary  writings,  102. 
Essenes,  the,  17. 
Evangelists,  27,  28. 
Expansion  of  Christianitv,  119;  to  Africa,  121;  to  Balkan  Peninsula,  122; 

to  Britain,  124;  to  Germany,  123. 
Exploration  of  catacombs,  108. 

Faith,  written  standard  of  universal,  84. 

Fathers,  travels  of  the,  103-105. 

Festivals,  24;  weekly,  93. 

Frescoes  from  Scripture  subjects  in  catacombs,  109. 

Gnosticism :  disposed  to  make  terms  with  Christianity,  29 ;  independent, 
32;  in  general,  30;  Jewish,  30;  Oriental  and  pagan,  31;  the  place  of,  33. 
Gospel,  reception  of,  in  Italian  cities,  89. 
Government:  ecclesiastical,  86-92;  revolution  in  Church,  86. 
Gregory  the  Great,  the  age  of,  117;  character  of,  117. 

Heresies,  Eastern,  throttled  at  Rome,  92. 
Historical  suggestions  of  the  catacombs,  112. 
Holy  Ghost,  doctrine  of,  81, 

Images:  distaste  for,  96;  Western  Church  inclined  to  use,  96. 
Italian  Church,  Rome  the  original,  89. 

James  the  Elder  suffers  martyrdom  at  Jerusalem,  7. 

James,  brother  of  Christ,  7. 

Jews,  the:  antecedents  of,  15;  Alexandrian,  17;  colonies  of,  as  apostolic 
fields,  18;  hostility  of,  to  Christianity,  19;  of  the  dispersion,  17;  revolts 
of,  16, 19;  Romaii,  18;  sects  of,  16, 17. 

Julian  the  Apostate:  antecedents  of,  50;  death  and  character  of,  52;  oppo- 
sition of,  to  Christianity,  51;  rehabilitates  paganism,  52, 53;  reign  of.  51. 

Language,  removal  of  natural  limitations  of,  4. 
Literature,  Greek  and  IJoinan,  9, 10, 
Logos,  the,  discussions  on,  80,  81. 

Marcion,  interview  of  Rolycarp  with,  34. 
Matthias  chosen  as  an  apostle,  3. 
Metropolitan  authority,  89. 


INDEX.  133 

Missionaries  sent  out  from  Rome,  125. 

Monasticism :  an  emigration  of  towns  to  the  desert,  115;  Christian  use  of, 

114;  notable  examples  of,  115, 116. 
Montanism:  disappearance  of,  5G;  expansion  of,  55;  plan  of,  54. 
Montanus,  opinions  of,  55. 
Miiratori  fragment  gives  first  list  of  canonical  books,  71. 

Nazaneans,  30. 
Nestorianism,  spread  of,  61. 
Nica3a,  Council  of,  58. 

Nicene  conclusions  not  fruit  of  tlieologians,  but  faith  of  commonwealth  of 
believers,  85. 

Origen  :  defends  narrative  of  Susanna,  70 ;  incongruities  of  theology  of,  57. 
Orthodoxy  and  Christian  defence  taught  in  symbolism  of  catacombs,  110. 
Outbreak:  in  Alexandria,  57;  of  pagan  persecution,  19. 

Pagan  alarm  at  bases  of  Christianity,  35. 

Paganism:  attempts  to  adopt  Christianity,  2J);  Christianity  contrasted 
with,  25;  degradation  of  women  by,  13 ;  depravity  of,  wlien  Christian- 
ity appeared,  13;  disintegration  of,  38;  low  estimate  of  childhood  under, 
13;  slavery  universal  under,  14;  transition  from,  to  Christianity, 
101. 

Patriarchate,  the,  90. 

Paul  of  Thebes,  115. 

Pelagians:  Nestorius  in  sympathy  with,  61;  spread  of  their  doctrines, 
63,  64. 

Pelagius,  63;  his  appeal  to  Innocent  I.,  64. 

Penitential  presbyter  supervised  penitents,  99. 

Pentecost:  divine  endorsement  of  command  to  preach,  4;  feast  of,  3; 
preaching  at,  2. 

Persecutions  of  Christians  under  Eoman  emperors,  19-22. 

Pharisees,  the,  16. 

Piienomenou,  a  new  historical,  35. 

Philosophy,  (Jrecic,  10;  decay  of,  11. 

Political  life  anil  the  Church,  46. 

Polity,  ecclesiastical,  measvires  taken  for  a  unifying,  3. 

Poor,tl)c,  Christian  care  of,  25. 

Power  of  the  Church  to  purify  itself,  128. 

Prayer  for  the  dead,  none  found  in  epigraphs  of  the  catacombs,  113. 

Presbyters,  28, 87. 

Pome :  bishop  of,  90,  91 ;  claim  of  Church  of,  to  pre-eminence,  91 ;  Eastern 
lieresies  throttled  at,  92;  its  highways  help  to  spread  the  Gospel,  12; 
missionaries  sent  out  from,  125 ;  opposition  of,  to  Christianity,  12;  per- 
secution of  Christians  in,  20;  rule  of^  universal  at  dawn  of  Christian- 
itv,  12. 


134  INDEX. 

Sacred  seasons  and  public  worship,  93. 

Sadducees,  the,  16. 

Samaritans,  the,  IG. 

Schisms:   Donatist  schism,  G8;  Meletian  schism,  69;   Novatian  schism, 

caused  by  Callistus,  67 ;  schism  of  Felicissimus,  67. 
Schools,  the  Christian,  43-45 ;  elements  of,  in  Paul's  day,  43 ;  tendency  of,  45. 
Schools,  pagan :  Atomistic,  Eleatic,  Pythagorean,  Sophist,  10. 
Scriptures:  and  tradition,  70-74;  each  Church  possessed  copies  of,  101. 
Seasons,  sacred,  93. 
Sects,  Jewish,  16,  17. 
Slavery  universal  under  paganism,  14. 
Slaves,  humanity  of  early  Cliristians  to,  26. 
St.  Patrick,  evangelical  work  of,  124. 
St.  Simeon,  the  pillar  saint,  116, 
Symbolism  of  the  catacombs,  110-112. 
Synod:  of  Hippo  declare  exact  canons,  72;  of  Labcs,  121. 
Systems  of  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle,  10. 

Theological  controversies,  wide  spread  of,  64, 65. 

Theology:  anthropology,  pagan  and  Christian,  82;  Christology,  develop- 
ment of,  80,  81 ;  cosmology  a  fruitful  field  of  speculation,  82;  divine 
character,  foundation  of  all,  78;  during  the  early  |>eri<)d,  78;  effect  of 
Niccne  Council  upon  adjustment  of  theological  questions,  84;  escha- 
tology,  doctrine  of,  83;  Holy  Ghost,  doctrine  of,  81;  Logos,  the,  dis- 
cussions on,  80,  81 ;  of  the  matter-of-fact  believer,  85;  sacrament  of 
baptism,  82 ;  imit}'  and  trinity,  methods  of  proving,  79. 

Thinking-room,  or  book-room  in  churches,  101. 

Tradition:  and  Scriptures,  70-74;  force  of,  72;  raised  above  Scriptures  in 
sixteenth  century,  74;  rich  in  reminiscences,  73 ;  the  later,  73. 

Transition  from  paganism  to  Christianity  a  thorough  revolution,  101. 

Transubstantiation,  no  trace  of  doctrine  of,  in  patristic  period,  83. 

Unity  and  trinity,  methods  of  proving,  79. 
Unsellishness  of  early  Christians,  25,  26. 

V.ilcnliuian,  the  (luostic,  31. 

\'aii(lals  and  ]Mo(»rs  of  Nortli  Africa  become  Avians,  50. 

Western  Cliurch:  inclined  to  use  images,  96;  no  rule  in,  concerning  benef- 
icence, 100. 

Women,  degradation  of,  by  paganism,  13. 

Worship.  Cliristian  :  festivals,  24,  93,  94  ;  martyr  days,  94  ;  order  of  ser- 
vice, 23;  simplicity  of  forms,  23;  the  Sabbath,  24;  the  sacraments,  24. 

Writings,  ajiocryplial,  75,  76  ;  epistolary,  102. 

THE     END. 


DATE  DUE 

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